​World War I or the First World War was a war fought by many countries, which is why it is called a "world" war. It started in 1914 and ended in 1918. 135 countries took part in World War I, and more than 15,000,000 people died in the war.

​The First World War, which began in August 1914, was directly triggered by the assassination of the Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, on 28 June 1914 by Bosnian revolutionary, Gavrilo Princip. This event was, however, simply the trigger that set off declarations of war.
The actual causes of the war were;

1. The system of Alliances - An alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each other help if it is needed. A number of alliances had been signed by countries between the years 1879 and 1914. For example, the Dual Alliance signed by Germany with Austria and Hungary in 1879 and later joined by Italy in 1882 to become the triple Alliance. This system led to the division of Europe into two antagonistic power blocs. It led to fear and suspicion between nations. It transformed local disputes into a general conflict. The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy were directly opposed by the Entente powers of France and Russia and later included Great Britain to form the Triple Entente in 1907.
2. Imperialism - Imperialism is when a country takes over new lands or countries and makes them subject to their rule. By 1900, the British Empire extended over five continents and France had control of large areas of Africa. With the rise of industrialism, countries needed new markets. The amount of lands 'owned' by Britain and France increased their rivalry with Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only had small areas of Africa.
3. Economic rivalry - According to Marxism, the highest form of capitalism would ultimately lead to an inevitable war through economic rivalry. In the late 19th century, all European powers had industrialized or had started. Therefore, to match the needs of economy and industry, nations sought to expand their territory through imperialism in order to gain raw materials and markets. This then led to the clash of imperial interest between nations and ultimately led to conflict and war.
4. Militarism - Militarism means that the army and military forces are given a high profile by the government. The growing European divide had led to an arms race between the main countries. The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914 and there was fierce competition between Britain and Germany for mastery of the seas. The British had introduced the 'Dreadnought', an effective battleship, in 1906. The Germans soon followed suit introducing their own battleships. The German, Von Schlieffen also drew up a plan of action that involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia made an attack on Germany.
5. Nationalism - Nationalism means being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one's country. The Congress of Vienna, held after Napoleon's exile to Elba, aimed to sort out problems in Europe. Delegates from Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia decided upon a new Europe that left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Strong nationalist elements led to the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. The settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian war left France angry at the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and keen to regain their lost territory. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to differing nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they lived.
6. Moroccan Crisis - In 1904 Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted their independence. In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan independence. War was narrowly avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco. However, in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo.

The First Moroccan Crisis
The First Moroccan Crisis clearly indicated that Germany’s relation with France was at best fragile. In 1905 Morocco was one of the few African states not occupied by a European power. In May 1905 it was agreed that an international conference should be held on Morocco in Algeciras.
The Algeciras Conference of 1906
The main aim was to decide what was to be done with regards to Morocco. The two main protagonists at Algeciras were France and Germany. However, it soon became very clear to Germany that other European powers had sided with France – Britain, Spain and Italy. The Algeciras Conference ended on April 7th 1906.The Germans got very little out of the conference. The plan to create a triple alliance or even a quadruple alliance to isolate Great Britain failed. Arguably, by the end of the conference, Britain and France had even closer ties to one another. A German presence in North Africa had also failed to materialize. The French media portrayed Germany as an inferior nation, much to the concern of the more experienced politicians in Paris. The Algeciras Conference may have ‘resolved’ the crisis in Morocco but the outcome clearly defined Europe into certain camps. At this conference Germany publicly lost out.
The Agadir Crisis of 1911 (the Second Moroccan Crisis.)
The Agadir Crisis occurred in 1911 just four years after the First Moroccan Crisis. Germany’s attention was diverted after the 1905-06 crises by other issues, mainly building up her navy so that it rivaled the Royal Navy. As a result France spent five years having far more influence in Morocco than Germany. They backed the corrupt Sultan, Abdul Aziz, who was accused by some of his countrymen of selling out Morocco to the French. The half-brother of Aziz, Mulay Hafid, took a stand on behalf of the Moroccan people who proclaimed him Sultan in January 1908. Fez also came under attack. In April 1911 a decision was made in Germany to send troops to Fez to support the foreign contingent living there. The plan was to send German warships to Agadir and Mogador ostensibly to defend German citizens in Morocco. A gunboat, the ‘Panther’, was sent to Agadir on July 1st 1911. 
What part did the Agadir Crisis play in the outbreak of World War One?
The episode proved that Germany was hell-bent on trying to dominate Europe as a whole. Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George were among those who believed this.
7)  Bosnian Crisis
In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war. Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria-Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high.
8)  The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
A secret society called Ujedinjenje Ili Smrt, ('Union or Death') or Black Hand was founded in Belgrade, an outgrowth of an older Serb nationalist group: Narodna Odbrana. When it was learned that the Heir-Apparent to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was scheduled to visit Sarajevo in June of 1914, the Black Hand decided to assassinate him. Three young Bosnians were recruited, trained and equipped: Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez. The murders of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie brought Austro-Serbian tensions to a head. As Vienna took a hard line against Serbia, the other powers in Europe took sides. The wheels of war gained speed. The Crisis of July turned into world war, just over thirty days after Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were shot.
System of Alliances.
By 1914, Europe had divided into two camps.
1) The Triple Alliance was Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary.
2) The Triple Entente was Britain, France and Russia.
1) The Triple Alliance
The alliance between Germany and Austria was natural. Both spoke the same language - German - and had a similar culture. Austria was in political trouble in the south-east of Europe - the Balkans. She needed the might of Germany to back her up if trouble got worse. Italy had joined these countries as she feared their power on her northern border.
Each member of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy) promised to help the others if they were attacked by another country. By the close of the war the Central Powers had been extended to incorporate Bulgaria and Turkey
2)  The Triple Entente
The Entente Powers comprised a military alliance - driven by a variety of inter-related treaties - of France, Great Britain and Russia.
The Entente alliance sprang from the military concerns of Germany's neighbours to east and west. Russia and France; accordingly in 1894 they signed an alliance based upon fears of growing German power. Britain subsequently forged alliances with both Russia and France once it became clear that Germany intended to construct a navy to match the Royal Navy in the late 1890s. Thus the Entente Alliance was not a formal alliance. The term was later replaced by the more general 'Allies' to include other nations including Italy and Japan.

The war was fought in three continents; Europe, Africa and Asia and both on land and on the sea. In Europe, the war was fought in two fronts
The Western Front was where most of the fighting between Germany and the Allies happened.

• The war in western front was fought in Belgium and France as per the Schlieffen plan. Count Alfred von Schlieffen, mastermind of the Schlieffen Plan, served as Germany's Chief of the Imperial General Staff from 1891 to 1905. It was Schlieffen's plan, long after he retired from army (1906) that was used for the August 1914 attack on France that was to trigger World War One. The Schlieffen Plan entailed an attack on France (while Russia mobilized her army) followed by an attack on Russia. The plan meant that Germany could place the bulk of her military might on one frontier and then move it to another.

The basic mechanics of Von Schlieffen’s plan were;

• A devastating attack on France via neutral Belgium as soon as Russia had announced her intention to mobilise, which would take six weeks.
• A holding operation on the Russian/German border to be carried out if necessary and if required.
• Germany was to use 6 weeks to defeat France. a massive and successful surprise attack against France would be enough to put off Britain becoming involved in a continental war
• Germany would then use her modernised rail system to move troops quickly from the French operation to the Russian front. Russia would then be attacked and defeated.

The Schrieffer Plan was daring but it had a number of glaring weaknesses:

• a) The actions of Russia determined when Germany would have to start her attack on France even if she was ready or not.
• b) It assumed that Russia would need six weeks to mobilise. But she mobilized faster than it was assumed.
• c) It assumed that Germany would defeat France in less than six weeks. 

Early on July 31, Russia began a full mobilization of its forces in preparation for war with Austria-Hungary. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia and German troops began moving into Luxembourg in preparation for invading Belgium and France. On August 2, Germany contacted the Belgian government requesting free passage through Belgium for its troops. This was refused by King Albert and Germany declared war on both Belgium and France on August 3. 
The German Army went into Belgium on the 4 August. On the same day, Great Britain started a war on Germany, because Britain was a friend of Belgium. When the Germans got to the Belgian city of Liège, they did finally push the Belgians out of the city, but it had taken longer than the German generals had planned. 
On December 24-25, 1914, there was a temporary halt to the fighting on parts of the Western Front. This was the Christmas truce. 
The initial force behind the Christmas Truce came from the Germans. Christmas was celebrated in full, with men visiting across the lines and gifts of food and tobacco being exchanged.
As Christmas ended, both sides reluctantly returned to war, the bonds forged at Christmas slowly eroded as units rotated out and the fighting became more ferocious. By 1915, the Western Front had become a stalemate as both sides engaged in trench warfare. The men on both sides took spades and dug lines of trenches went all the way from Switzerland to the North Sea, because they did not want to be killed. In front of the trenches, there was barbed wire that cut anyone who tried to climb over it, and mines that blew up anyone who tried to run across the "no man's land" that was in between the trenches. Gas was also an important weapon used. 
The war in the west was static in the next three years and attempts by the military commanders on both sides to break the stalemate led to deaths of many soldiers. At the battle of the Somme in 1916 60,000 British men died in a single day. It was one of the bloodiest days in the history of the British army. 
Seeking to shatter the Anglo-French lines, the German Chief of Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, began planning a massive assault on the French city of Verdun. The Battle of Verdun lasted from February 21, 1916 until December 18, 1916 and was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War I. A brutal battle of attrition, Verdun cost the French an estimated 161,000 dead, 101,000 missing and 216,000 wounded. German losses were approximately 142,000 killed and 187,000 wounded.

2. The Eastern Front was fought in Central and Eastern Europe and was one of the main places where World War I took place. The start of the war on the eastern front involved an attack on Russia on 1st of august 1914. On August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia and six days later entered into hostilities with France and Britain. The Russians were decisively defeated by allied forces of Austria and Germany at the battle of Tanneberg in august 1914 and at the battle of Missourian
Lakes in September 1914.

Some of the fiercest battles between the Allies and the central powers took place in the sea. By May 1916, Germany’s main fleet was stationed in the North Sea to attack Britain’s fleet. However, the British intelligence decoded the German wireless code and was able to prepare the royal navy to fully counter Germany’s challenge. Both sides suffered casualties in the war that followed. 11 german ships and 14 British ships were lost.
Importance of Britain’s supremacy at sea 
a) The British naval forces assisted in blocking the central powers particularly the Germans from accessing food and raw materials from other parts of the world. This derailed their war plans. 
b) Her naval supremacy enabled the allies to capture colonies of the central powers. 
c) The sea blockade enabled the allies to maintain uninterrupted communication with other allied forces, as well as safeguard the british food and raw material supplies from other parts of the world. 
The final phase of World War 1 
The final phase of the war was a second Germany onslaught on France in 1918 where the Germans were decisively defeated in the hands of USA soldiers.
End of World War I.
Two events that led to the end of World War I were: 
1) Russia’s withdrawal from the war after the Great Russian revolution. 
2) The declaration of war by the United States of America against the central powers. 
The First Russian Revolution
In 1917, there was a revolution in Russia. The Russian people didn't want to fight anymore, because the war had been putting burdens on them, and many of them were poor and hungry. 
The Second Russian Revolution 
Two factions fought to rule over Russia. The passive Mensheviks lost against radical Bolsheviks. The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) which was Communist who followed the ideas of Karl Marx. The new government sued the Germans for peace, and signed a peace treaty called Brest-Litvosk with the Central Powers in March 1918 at the city of Brest Litovsk. 
The Germans and Russians stopped fighting. This gave Germany lots of land in Eastern Europe and the Baltic Sea
USA entry into the war. 
The German generals using submarines named U-boats (underwater boats) attacked American ships (Lusitania) that were carrying food and weapons to Great Britain. Some Americans were killed by the submarines. 
Germany also wrote a secret telegram note to Mexico suggesting that the two countries work together to attack the United States (the Zimmerman Telegram- because the person who sent it was named Arthur Zimmerman-the german foreign minister). 
Other reasons why USA entered the war on the side of the Allies were;

1. America was concerned with safeguarding her trade with Britain. (US– Anglo relationship was strong). USA was fully aware that the a defeat of Allied powers would cost her financial and industrial institutions
2. The USA and British intelligence were able to link some Germany sympathizers with the industrial sabotage in factories and trade unions in the USA.
3. Cruelty of the Germans led to the growth of anti-Germany feelings in the United States. Many of the Allies sympathizers had relatives in either France or Britain. 

American people decided that they wanted their country to enter the war to punish Germany. On April 6, 1917 the United States declared war against Germany and became part of the Allies. 
The socialist politicians declared Germany a republic and met with the Supreme Commander of the allied forces on 7th November 1918, Ferdinand Foch, to negotiate for end of the war with very stiff terms to the Germans. 
The stiff terms given to the Germans included;

• a) Germany to withdraw from all occupied territories, including overseas colonies.
• b) All German forces west of the Rhine to be withdrawn.
• c) All German warships to surrender to the Allies.
• d) Occupation of some parts of Germany by the Allies.
• e) All Allied prisoners of war to be released. 

The Germans were given 72 hours to either accept or reject these stiff conditions. Protesting bitterly, they signed an armistice on 9th November 1918. At 11:00 AM on 9th November 1918, the war ended.
Reasons why the allies won World War I. 

• a) Allied powers had many supporters drawn from 25 states some of which were Britain, France, Belgium, Russia, Italy, USA, Japan and Portugal. They had more manpower than the central powers.
• b) Germany failure to effectively control her expensive colonies and others turned against her.
• C) USA entry into war on the side of the allies accelerated the defeat of the central powers. The industrial might of USA and her economic wealth helped the Allies to force the central powers to their knees.
• d) The Allies had able and focused political leaders like Lloyd George-the British Premier and Georges Clemenceau, the French Premier.
• e) Germans/axis powers made serious technical mistakes like invasion of the neutral Belgium by Germany which turned the world opinion against the central powers.
• f) Superior naval power of the Allies. The superiority of the British Royal Navy enabled the Allies to enforce a naval Blockade that caused severe food shortages among the central powers.
• g) Germany fought the war on many fronts.
• h) Germany was badly led down by her colleagues like Italy who decamped and Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary who had to be assisted all the time. Turkey on her part easily accepted defeat.
• i) The Allies had financial and industrial resources in Europe and in their colonies which were used to great advantage during the war.
• j) The Allies had powerful weapons e.g. they used Tankers, Aircraft and Battleships.
• i) The allies were united under the Command of General Foch which disadvantaged the central powers. German also used young and inexperienced soldiers after 1918 due to heavy causalities.  
• The central powers were surrounded by the Allies as they lay in the centre of Europe. They also lacked an extensive coastline and thus were easily blockaded.

• Every person’s dignity should be respected and protected. One must not ridicule or embarrass other members of society.

4.  Freedom and security of a person.

• This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment.

5.  Freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour.

• No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. Every employer should treat his or her employees with dignity and not to force them to work.

6.  Right to privacy.

• Every person has a right NOT to have him or herself, his or her property searched, or his or her possessions seized. Not revealing a person’s family or private affairs unnecessarily or private communications interfered with.

7.  Right to assembly, demonstration, picketing and petition.

• Every citizen has a right to assemble and participate in peaceful demonstrations and even present petitions to public authorities.

8.  Political rights

• Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party.
• Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free` expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office
• Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold office.

9.  Freedom of movement and residence

• Citizens have a right to free movement and ownership of property in any part of the country. Anyone is also free to leave the country or enter and remain in the country

10. Economic and social rights

• Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care.
• Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.
• Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.
• Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities. Every person has the right to social security
• Every person has the right to education.
• A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment.
• The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants.

11. Consumer rights

• Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality.
• Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.
• Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests. Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services.

12. Right to fair labour practices.

• Every worker has a right to fair labour practices like fair remuneration, reasonable working conditions, the right to join or practice in trade union activities and the right to go on strike.
• Every employer has a right to join an employers’ association and participate in its programmes and activities

Responsibility.

• One must respect the right to fair labour practices of one’s employees
• Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property.

13. Right to clean and healthy environment.

• Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations.

14. Freedom of conscience, religion, belief and opinion.

• Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship, practice, teaching or observance, including observance of day of worship. One cannot be denied employment or educational opportunity because of belonging to a particular religion or because of one’s belief or religion.
• A person cannot be forced to engage in any act that goes against his or her belief or religion. 15. Freedom of expression.
• This guarantees all Kenyans the freedom to seek, receive or impart ideas or information. It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research.

16. Freedom of media.

• The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with the media.

17. Access to information.

• Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation.
• Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person.

18. Freedom of association.

• Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing. 19. Protection of the right to property.
• Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired.
• This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper. 20. Right to language and culture.
• Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the person’s choice.
• Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups.
• Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group.
• Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society.
• It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite.

21. Right to family.

• An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution.
• It is wrong to deny one’s spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce.
• The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution.

22. Fair administrative action.

• Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices.

23. Access to justice.

• Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required. If this is not free, many people will not access justice which will continue to be a preserve of the rich people.

24. Right of arrested persons.
An arrested person has;

• a) The right to be informed promptly in a language that the person understands of the reason for arrest, the right to remain silent and he consequences of not remaining silent.
• b) The right to remain silent. – The right of a person to choose to talk or to remain silent.
• c) The right to communicate with an advocate and other persons whose assistance is necessary (freedom of speech with all those who will assist him or her in the case.)
• d) The right of not being compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person.
• e) The right t be held separately from persons serving a sentence ( should not be held in prisons alongside those already convicted)
• f) To be brought to court as soon as reasonably possible, as but not later than twenty four hours after being arrested.
• g) To be charged or be informed of the reason for the extension of detention or release, at the first court appearance.
• h) To be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial, unless there are compelling reasons as to why one cannot be released. 25. Fair hearing.
• Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights;
• a) To be presumed innocent until proven otherwise.
• b) To be informed of the charges.
• c) To have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence.
• d) To a public trial before a court.
• e) To have the trial begin and be concluded with few delays.
• f) To be present when being tried.
• g) To be represented by an advocate and be informed of this right immediately. Depending on the circumstances, the accused may be assigned an advocate by the state and at the state’s expense.
• h) To remain silent and not testify during the proceedings.
• i) To be informed in advance, of the evidence the prosecution intends to present, and to have reasonable access to that evidence.
• j) To challenge the evidence.
• k) To refuse to give self-incriminating evidence.
• l) To have the assistance of an interpreter if the accused person cannot understand the language used in the trial.
• m) If convicted, to appeal, or apply for review by a higher court.

26. Rights of persons detained, held in custody or imprisoned.

• A person, who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned under the law, retains all rights and fundamental freedoms in the bill of rights. Except those that are impractical and inapplicable under the circumstances.
• A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner.

Rights enjoyed by Children in Kenya.

• A child refers to a young person from birth to full physical development. The term also refers to a person who has not attained the age of eighteen. The rights of children are contained in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and International Agreement on the Rights of the Child put in place in 1990.

The rights include;
a) Survival rights

• Every child has the right to a name and nationality from birth.
• Every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care.

b) Development rights

• Every child has the right to free and compulsory basic education.
• Every child has the right to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not.

c) Right of protection

• Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour.
• Every child has the right not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held for the shortest appropriate period of time.
• Every child has the right to separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the child’s sex and age.
• Every child has the right to a child’s best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child.
• Children should be protected from exploitation such as child labour.

Rights enjoyed by Persons with disabilities in Kenya.

• (a) A person with any disability is entitled to be treated with dignity and respect and to be addressed and referred to in a manner that is not demeaning. A person with any disability is entitled
• (b) A person with any disability is entitled to access educational institutions and facilities for persons with disabilities that are integrated into society to the extent compatible with the interests of the person.
• (c) A person with any disability is entitled to reasonable access to all places, public transport and information.
• (d) A person with any disability is entitled to use Sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication.
• (e) A person with any disability is entitled to access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the person’s disability.

Rights of the Youth in Kenya.

• (a) Right to access relevant education and training.
• (b) Right to have opportunities to associate, be represented and participate in political, social, economic and other spheres of life.
• (c) Right to access employment.
• (d) Youths are protected from harmful cultural practices and exploitation.

Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups in Kenya.

• The constitution specifies a marginalized community as;
• A community that because of its relatively small population has been unable to fully participate in the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole.
• A traditional community that, out of need or desire to preserve its unique culture and identity from assimilation, has remained outside the integrated social and economic life of Kenya.
• An indigenous community that has retained maintained a traditional lifestyle and livelihood based on a hunter or gatherer economy.
• Pastoral persons and communities, whether nomadic or settled and because of their relative geographical location, have experienced only marginal participation in the integrated social and economic life of kenya as a whole.

Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups

• a) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to participate and are represented in governance and other spheres of life.
• b) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities in educational and economic fields.
• c) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities for access to employment.
• d) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to develop their cultural values, languages and practices.
• e) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure.

Rights of older members of society in Kenya.

• a) Right to fully participate in the affairs of society.
• b) Right to pursue their personal development.
• c) Right to live in dignity and respect and be free from abuse.
• d) Right to receive reasonable care and assistance from their family and the State.

The Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission.

• This commission was entrenched in the Constitution of Kenya (2010) to replace the KNHRC. The commission constitutes atleast three but not more than nine members appointed by the president with the approval of the national assembly.

Objectives;

• a) To protect the sovereignty of the people.
• b) To ensure secure observance by all state organs of democratic values and principles
• c) To promote constitutionalism

Functions of the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission.

• a) It has a duty to promote respect for human rights and develop a culture of human rights in the republic.
• b) A duty to promote protection and observance of human rights in public and private institutions.
• c) It monitors, investigates and reports on the observance of human rights in all spheres of life in the republic, including observance by the national security organs.
• d) It receives and investigates complaints about alleged abuses of human rights and takes steps to secure appropriate redress where human rights have been violated.
• e) It acts as the principal organ of the state in ensuring compliance with obligations under treaties and conventions relating o human rights.
• f) It investigates any conduct in state affairs, or any act or omission in public administration in any sphere of government, which is alleged or suspected to be prejudicial or improper, or to result in any impropriety, or prejudice.
• g) It investigates complaints about abuse of power, unfair treatment, manifest injustice or unlawful, oppressive, unfair or unresponsive official conduct.

The term ‘constitution’ refers to a set of agreed principles and rules which state the structure and powers of a government
The constitution of Kenya is a supreme law that binds all people and all state organs at national and county level. It outlines the structure of government, defines the powers and prerogatives of the head of state, states the compositions, functions and powers of parliament, states the compositions of the executives and outlines the duties and rights of the citizens.
Constitutions vary in various countries depending on different experiences and their form is determined by the following.

• a) The historical background of a country
• b) Geographical factors. For example the numerous islands of Japan must be catered for in their constitution
• c) Religious beliefs of the people. Some countries have the Islamic Sharia law in their constitution e.g Libya and Somali
• d) Race composition of a country. For example, in South Africa the apartheid racial policy had been included in their constitution.

• a) The constitution provides the legal ground from which the laws of the country are made.
• b) It spells out the powers of government and its relationship to the governed.
• c) It spells out the rights and duties of all citizens. It also provides the options a citizen has, legally, if those rights and freedoms are violated.

• This is a constitution in which the basic principles concerning the organization of government, powers of its various agencies and rights of the subjects are consciously written down in one document.
• The first country to adopt a written constitution was USA after she attained political independence from Britain on 4th July 1776. France adopted it in 1791following the French revolution of 1789. The primary objective of these adoptions was to include the rights of the citizens to avoid abuse by those in power.
• Other countries with written constitutions include many European, African, Latin American and Asian countries. Kenya also has a written constitution.

• a) It acts as a standard of reference to which the acts of the government of the day may always be compared.
• b) It is a rigid document that cannot be altered easily.
• c) It is only amended through a clearly spelt out procedure which is followed to the letter.
• d) There must be a special body entrusted by the legislature with the work of drafting the constitution.
• e) Once drafted the constitution must get the approval of the legislature.

• a) Since the procedures of amending a constitution are clearly spelled out, it is not easy for politicians or other interest groups in the society to alter it.
• b) In case of a crisis, the constitution provides very clear guidelines on the procedures to be followed, thus restoring stability in the country.
• c) Since a written constitution is rigid, it therefore recognizes that there are fundamentals in a state, e.g rights of citizens, powers and duties of the president, which should never be easily changed. Change can only be done after adequate consideration.
• d) It is fundamental to a newly formed nation so as to take off in an orderly and organized manner.
• e) A written constitution is important to ensure that the identity of the various groups are preserved and maintained in a country with diverse racial groupings, religion and ethnic composition.
• f) Since it is arrived at after thorough and careful consideration by all, it therefore unites the people in the nation as it would have acquired recognition and acceptance from the majority of the citizens

• a) Due to its rigidity, it can fail to respond to changing circumstances and can therefore easily become obsolete.
• b) A written constitution tends to make the judiciary too powerful as it I the only body that interprets the document. Where the executive and the legislature control the judiciary, the constitution can easily be manipulated.
• c) Some written constitutions are too detailed and rarely understood by the ordinary citizens.
• d) The procedure for amending the constitution is slow and costly. This causes delays which could lead to civil disorder in a society

This is a constitution where the fundamental principles of the organization and powers of the government are not contained in one document but rather in several scattered documents to add to the customs of a country. For example, the British constitution.

• a) Statutes. This refers to an Act of Parliament. Examples of statutes that comprise the British constitution are;
• Act of Union with Scotland of 1707 that determined the territorial boundaries within which the United Kingdom’s constitution operates.
• Parliament Act of 1911 that governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Representatives
• a) The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1834 which determine succession to the throne.
• b) Customs. This refers to ancient or traditional practices or the common law. For example, the first born inheriting the throne.
• c) Laws of precedents. Past accepted principles may be applied to a new set of facts in a judgment and this may eventually become part of the law of the land.
• d) Customs of parliament. House procedures including standing orders and other regulations are part of the British constitution.
• e) Historical documents. The following two Important documents form part of the British constitution;
  • The Magna Carta (1215AD) that contained the promises by the England King that he would not levy taxes outside the three legal feudal taxes without the consent of the legal counsel.
  • The Petition of Right (1628) in which King Charles I agreed not to levy taxes unless through the Act of Parliament.
• f) The Conventions and Practices that have become respected over the years are also part of the British constitution.

• a) It is flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances in the society. This is especially valuable during periods of rapid socio-economic and political changes.
• b) It is indigenous and therefore suited for a state.
• c) It can be changed by ordinary legislative process.
• d) It provides continuity with the nation’s traditions and is therefore accepted and respected by the people.

• a) It gives the courts too much work in handling matters as they search for constitutional principles not only in judicial decisions but in different statutes and customs.
• b) Because of the nature of the unwritten constitution, it is not easy to protect the rights of people effectively as the fundamentals of the state are not recorded in a few or a single document.
• c) An unwritten constitution tends to be vague and indefinite as compared to the written constitution.
• d) An unwritten constitution presupposes that the people are politically conscious and alert and will ensure that their rights and liberties are respected.

• a) Definiteness; it must depict clear intelligence and one which facilitates thinking. It must define its content clearly.
• b) It should be comprehensive/ it must be short but inclusive of all the issues involved in government operation.
• c) Should be durable and elastic/ it should neither be too rigid to amend or change nor so flexible as to encourage interference of its basic principle.
• d) Should be able to protect fundamental rights and freedom of citizen/a bill of rights must be provided for in the constitution, showing the extent to which the government can interfere with individual rights.
• e) Amendment procedure must be stated clearly.
• f) The constitution must be representative of the diverse social and political spectrum of the people.
• g) It must exhibit supremacy of the people/ it must make the will of the people as the basis of government.
• h) It must stipulate the choice of government through free and fair elections
• i) Statement of national wealth. /It must have a clear statement on how resources are to be managed and how wealth created is to be distributed.

Pre- colonial era.

• The rules and regulation that formed the constitutional basis of pre-colonial communities in Kenya were mainly formulated by the councils of elders and then handed down from generation to generation.
• The constitution was unwritten constitution guiding only the political, economic and socio-cultural activities

Colonial Era (1885- 1960)

• Kenya was under the British colonial rule after the Berlin Conference upto 1963. The constitutional developments in the country were greatly influenced by the settlement of immigrant communities like the white settlers, the Asians and Christian missionaries. These communities competed with the Africans for control of economic resources and political power.
• The turning point in Kenya’s pre-colonial constitutional developments was the outbreak of Mau Mau war and subsequent declaration of a State Of Emergency on 20th October 1952 by Sir Evelyn Barring.
• When the colonial secretary Oliver Lyttelton visited Kenya in 1954, he proposed the following constitutional reforms.
• Establishment of a multi-racial council of ministers representing the three races setting ground for two Indian and one African minister (B. A Ohanga became the first African Minister)
• It Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO
• Lifting the ban on African political parties/district associations.
• In 1958, a new constitution was proposed by Lennox Boyd. The constitution led to increased number of elected Africans in the legislative council (from 8 to 14). It led to introduction of multi-racial representation in the legislative council. It led to the increase of the number of African ministers to two.
• The African elected members demanded for a constitutional conference culminating into the independence constitution.

The independence constitution (1960-1962)
The first Lancaster House Conference (1960)

• Attended by all members of Legco and two nominated members, the conference received the following demands;
  • a) Africans demanded for true democracy, where one man would have one vote.
    • b) The Arabs wanted to retain the ten-mile coastal strip, while Somalis wanted reunification with Somalia.
      • c) Michael Blundell, representing a section of Europeans demanded for a multi-racial government while Captain Briggs representing the white extremists demanded for creation of provinces along racial lines.
• All these proposal were moderated by the British government
• The period after the first Lancaster House conference witnessed a lot of differences among Africans and among other races. Among the Africans, the differences culminated into the formation of KANU in March 1960 at Kiambu with James Gichuru as president and KADU in Ngong Town with Ronald Ngala as the president.
• The main difference between KADU and KANU was that while KANU was advocating gor a unitary government, KADU wanted a federal system

The second Lancaster House conference (1962).

• When KANU refused to form government despite winning the elections, demanding for the release of Jomo Kenyatta, KADU formed a rather minority government that was heavily dominated by the colonial officials. Such a government was rejected by most people thus creating instability that led to the British Authorities calling for the second Lancaster House Conference.
• The following important issues were discussed;
  • a) The future of the coastal strip that belonged to the sultan prior to colonialism.
    • b) The future of North Eastern Province(North Frontier District)
      • c) Security of the minority.
• The participants in the formulation of the independence constitution were representatives of various political parties: - Paul Ngei (APP), KADU and KANU. Others were representatives of the Asian and European communities.
• The 1962 conference settled for a federal structure with a strong central government.
• A coalition government was formed briefly but when the 1962 constitution was promulgated, it was followed by a general election in May 1963.
• The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by the British Parliament
• The 1963 constitution established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister,
• The Queen of England remained Head of State.

• Kanu won the May elections and Kenya Attained internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. Kenya attained full independence on 12th December 1963 when the Queen ceased to be the head of state.
• Kenya has been using the Independence Constitution upto August 2010 though with so many amendments.

Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya.

• a) The independence constitution provided for a regional/majimbo government with each of the seven regions having a regional assembly and president. The boundaries of the regions were given protection in the constitution.
• b) It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives/upper house and lower house. The lower house comprised 117 elected members and 12 special members. The senate comprised 41 members representing the 41 administrative districts and one representing Nairobi city though the senate was subordinate to the House of Representatives, it had powers to authorize declaration of a state of emergence, 65% of the senators were required to approve the amendment of constitution. Also all Bills required approval of both houses.
• c) The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister (appointed by the governor) was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. The powers of the governor were defence of the country, foreign affairs, internal security and approval of legislation.
• d) The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government.
• e) It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individual’s rights. The Bill of rights was modeled on the European convention on Human Rights and Fundamental freedoms.
• f) The constitution provided for an elaborate scheme to protect the minority rights. The minorities in this case were the Europeans, Asians and some indigenous communities.
• g) Independent Electoral commission was set up consisting of the speakers of the two houses and a nominee of the Prime Minister. Also it comprised nominees representing the regions. This was to ensure impartiality and honesty in elections.
• h) The constitution provided for an independent and impartial judiciary to ensure justice and prevent corruption. Judges were accorded security of tenure which was extended to the Attorney General, the government’s principal legal advisor.
• i) It provided for public service commission. The aim was insulate the civil service recruitment and promotions from abuse and corruption.
• j) An independent land board.

From independence to Mult-party democracy period (1963-1991)

• Like many former British colonies, Kenya started off with a west Minister system of government.
• The first Constitutional amendment in independent Kenya was in 1964. Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The senate and regions were also abolished. A Constitutional review in June 1982 officially transformed Kenya into a one-party state.
• A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system.
• The period after 1992 was influenced by Global issues like the decline of the cold war, collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 and the intensified struggle for democracy all over the world.
• In 1997, the Inter Party Parliamentary Group (IPPG) was formed with membership from the Opposition and KANU mps. The aim was to come up with minimal constitutional reforms to level the ground before the 1997 general elections

The following reforms were approved;

• a) The KBC shall observe fairness in providing balanced all-inclusive political views in the news coverage.
• b) Membership of the Electoral Commission to be reviewed to accommodate the interest of the opposition.
• c) Registration of Parties would be done without unnecessary delay.
• d) The powers of the chiefs that would likely interfere with political activity at local level be contained.
• e) The police Act be amended to provide for politically impartial police force
• f) To repeal a number of laws restricting civil and political rights, ad abolition of the offence of sedition

In 1997, a constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a draft constitution. In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the CKRC into the independence constitution. It was now headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai and comprised 15 commissioners. In June 2001, the CKRC was expanded to include other groups like the People’s commission following the amendment of the 1997 Constitution of Kenya Review A ct. The CKRC act specified a 2 year time frame for completion of the review process. However, its activities were marred by controversy in 2002 and the ultimate dissolving of parliament in October 2002 by president Moi. He even attempted to dissolve the commission, thanks to its being entrenched in the independence constitution. When the NARC government took over power in 2003, the review exercise was reviewed. The National Constitutional Conference was convened at Bomas of Kenya and came up with what came to known as the Bomas Draft constitution. However the political elite did not support the Bomas Draft. In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako Draft The draft constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders. In December 2007, kenyans participated in the general elections that were followed by Post Election Violence caused by the controversy that surrounded the results of the elections.

• a) On 28 February 2008 The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga .Agenda No 4 of this arrangement was a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya The main provisions of the National Accord were:
  • Establishment of a grand coalition government with two parties; PNU and ODM sharing power.
    • Raila Odinga was to become Kenya’s second Prime minister after the position was created in the accord arrangement
      • Two deputy Prime Minister Positions would be filled by the PNU and ODM parties respectively.
        • Provision for An expanded cabinet with the two parties being accorded slots as per their proportion in the house.
• b) In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process.
• c) The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein, Mr Bobby Mkangi, Professor Christina Murray (South Africa), Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda).
• d) 23 February 2009 Members of the CoE were appointed by the President were later on sworn in,
• e) On 17 November 2009 CoE released the draft to the public and invited views and comments on the draft constitution,
• f) By 23rd February 2010. CoE had submitted the final draft of constitution to the Parliamentary Select Committee.
• g) On 4th august 2010 Kenya held a Constitutional Referendum where the new constitution was overwhelmingly endorsed.
• h) On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitutions.

• 1) Debate over contentious issues. Issues like the entrenchment of section 2A in the independence constitution in 1981 raised concerns among various stake holders and groups. The issue of whether to include the position of Prime Minister or not has also been debated for many years.
• 2) Collection of public views. The Saitoti commission (the Constitution review commission established by Moi in 1990) had the objective of collecting views of Kenyans concerning how KANU was to operate in the best way possible. In June 2001, the CKRC, chaired by Yash Pal Ghai was mandated to collect views as part of the constitution review process.
• 3) Civic education. in 2001, the Ghai Commission was mandated and funded to provide civic education .
• 4) Convening of constitutional conferences. For example, The 2002 National Constitution Conference at Bomas of Kenya and other similar conferences.
• 5) Drafting of the constitution. This involved both local and international experts who drafted the constitution between 2000 and 2010. This was mainly the work of the Ghai led CKRC and the Committee of experts led by Nzamba Gitonga.
• 6) The referendum. During the 2005 referendum, the Wako Draft constitution was rejected. In August 2010, another referendum was held and the 2010 proposed New Constitution was approved.
• 7) Promulgation of the constitution. On 27th of August 2010, President Mwai Kibaki presided over the promulgation of the new constitution of Kenya.

1. The 1963 independence constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion. It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Queen of England from the majority party in Parliament. The Queen of England remained Head of State as represented by the Governor General who was also the Commander-in-Chief
2. By the 1st amendment Act 28 of 1964, published in November 1964, Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The amendment outlined the criteria to be met by a presidential candidate. It made provision of a Vice President who would be appointed by the president from among the members of parliament. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga became the first occupant of that office.
3. By The 2nd amendment Act 38 of 1964 published on 17th December 1964, the senate and regions were also abolished.
4. 3rd amendment Act 14 of 1965, published on 8th June 1965, altered parliamentary Majority required for approval of a state of emergency to only a simple majority from the previous 65%. The term ‘region’ was replaced with ‘province.’ The amendment altered the title of Supreme Court.
5. By the 4th amendment Act 16 of 1966, published on 12th April 1966, commonwealth citizens became eligible for Kenyan citizenship. Also any legislator jailed for six months or more or missed to attend eight consecutive parliamentary seatings without the speaker’s permission had to forfeit his/her parliamentary seat.
6. On 28th April 1966, an amendment was passed, published on 30th April, to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election. This amendment targeted Kenya People’s Union (KPU) of Jaramogi Odinga that had been formed that year. The amendment was published, tabled, debated, passed and received presidential assent within 48 hours. (it was nicknamed ‘the KPU amendment’).
7. In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed, published on 7th June 1966, empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security. The president also acquired power to control freedom of the press.
8. In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate. The Act was published on 4th January 1967. The voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two-thirds of the MPs.
9. In 1968, by the 9th amendment, published on 12th April 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries. The act abolished the provincial councils and all representatives to the provincial and district boundaries. This marked the end of regionalism.
10. In 1968, by the 10th amendment, Act 45 published on 12th July 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his death was laid down. Also, that all candidates for a general election should be nominated by a political party. The act also gave the president power to nominate 13 MPs to replace the 12 specially elected members of the House of Representatives.
11. In 1974, the age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years. The minimum voting age was altered from 21 to 18 years.
12. In 1975, an amendment of the constitution empowered the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei who been found guilty of an election offence. It was named ‘the Ngei Amendment’. The bill went through all the stages in one afternoon and received presidential assent the following day.
13. In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembly.
14. In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community.
15. The 18th amendment Act passed in 1979 was the first one under president Moi. It provided that public officers had to resign six months in advance in order to qualify as candidates for parliamentary elections. 
16. In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assembly.
17. By The 19th amendment Act of 1981 published in 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya. The infamous section 2A was introduced in the constitution. (Kenya had been a de facto one party state between 1969 and 1982). The post of Chief Secretary was created to head the public service. The first occupant being Jeremiah Kiereini.
18. By the 1985 20th amendment Act, the High Court began acting as a Court of Appeal.
19. The 21st amendment Act passed in 1985 repealed Section 89 of the constitution which provided for the acquisition of Citizenship for anyone born in Kenya after December 11th 1963.
20. In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and Auditor–General was removed. The president could now dismiss them at will. Office of chief secretary was abolished.
21. In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed. The removal of security of tenure of the above officers sparked a lot of condemnation from LSK and main stream churches.
22. In 1988, an amendment was passé that provided the police with powers to hold a suspect in custody for upto fourteen days before taking him/ her to court if the crime constituted a capital offence. This is what led to detaining of persons suspected of opposing the government in the dingy basement of Nyayo House where some were tortured to death.
23. 1990- Security of tenure of the offices of AG and Controller and Auditor –General was reinstated.
24. A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions (section 2A) of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December.
25. In 1991, an amendment that was passed limited the tenure of the president to a maximum of two-five year terms.
26. After 1997 elections, Parliament, on the initiative of the government, passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms.
27. A constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a draft constitution.
28. In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC) headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai into the independence constitution.
29. In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako Draft
30. The draft constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders.
31. The rejection of the draft constitution by Kenyans in the referendum of 2005 meant that the 1963 constitution (as amended) remained the basic law of Kenya. .
32. 28 February 2008The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga to end violence that erupted after the December 2007 presidential elections. Agenda No 4 of this arrangement calls for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya
33. In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray (South Africa) Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda.
34. On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution.

• a) Reduction of president’s executive powers.
• b) Devolution of power to regions (creation of county and national governments.)
• c) Creation of the senate and national assembly to constitute parliament.
• d) On Citizenship, Birth and registration are the only recognize ways of attaining Kenyan citizenship. Dual citizenship is now recognized by the constitution.
• e) Recognition of the Kadhi’s courts as subordinate courts in the judicial court system.
• f) Expansion of the citizens’ Bill of Rights to guarantee equal representation for either gender in all governance structures.

• Why there was need to have a new constitution in Kenya.
• The need to meet the changing needs of the Kenyan society, e.g. due to population growth.
• The rise of gender sensitivity in Kenya/The need to address the rights of women which had not been adequately addressed in the outgoing constitution.
• The constant misuse of executive authority by the Moi and Kenyatta regime/ the need to give less or more power to the executive.
• The need to depart from the colonial policies that found their way into the outgoing constitution.
• The need to safeguard against social vices like corruption and land grabbing.
• The need to enhance unity and realize a liberal society due to political maturity.

• Party differences have been transferred to the constitution making process e.g. the NARC fallout, the ODM wrangles between Raila and Ruto. Etc.
• Sectarian interests based on tribe, religion, age, sex which is hard to satisfy. E.g in relation to creation of counties, Kadhis court and land laws.
• Attempts to project personality, individual or group interests rather than national interest into the process.
• Direct misinformation of the public and propaganda by politicians and other groups with selfish interests.
• Illiteracy and ignorance of the electorate and therefore easily misled.
• Tension and sometimes violence marred the whole review process.
• Limited financial resources and personnel
• Lack of unity of purpose and co-operation among existing political parties hence difficulty in hammering out compromise..
• Inadequate civic education/wrong civic education.
• Lack of consultation with all the interested stake holders.
• An attempt to tie the constitutional review process with election time-table, political programmes and interests.

• The Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and binds all persons and all State organs at both levels of government.
• No person may claim or exercise State authority except as authorized under the Constitution.
• The validity or legality of the Constitution is not subject to challenge by or before any court or other State organ.
• Any law, including customary law that is inconsistent with the Constitution is void to the extent of the inconsistency, and any act or omission in contravention of the Constitution is invalid.
• The general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya.
• Any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under this Constitution.

• It is the fundamental law of Kenya.
• It has helped in establishing the philosophy, character and structure of the Kenyan government.
• It has laid down principles which determine government power and duties.
• It r regulates, distributes and limits the functions of different institutions of the state.
• It spells out the basis of relationship between the Kenyans and the government and what rights should be in that relationship.

• It protects the interests of the weak in the society from those who would want to dominate them.
• It checks the powers of the dictatorial rulers.
• It defines how to rise to power hence preventing unnecessary power struggles.
• It provides for the separation of powers between the three arms of government.
• It defines the powers of those in authority hence preventing misuse of power.
• It defines relations with other countries
• It specifies on how a government is to be formed.

​Despite the high amount of decentralization of African communities in the 19th c , there existed a few who were centralized. For example, Buganda, Ethiopia, Buganda, Asante, Mandinka, Ndebele and shona among others.

• These were a Bantu speaking people of the Buganda kingdom in Uganda. The Buganda Chiefdom had emerged as early as 140 AD as a subject state of Bunyoro- Kitara Kingdom Origin of Buganda kingdom.
• The kingdom was crystallized around the counties of busiro, kyadondo and mawakota. Traditions also state that the first king and creator of Buganda kingdom was Kintu who came from the east around Mount Elgon region. It is believed he entered Buganda with 13 clans.
• Other theories attribute Buganda’s origin to the Luo. That Kimera Kato, a brother of Isingoma Rukidi Mpunga the founder of the luo-babito dynasty in Bunyoro was the founder of Buganda. It is also probable that Buganda might have been one of the many kingdoms founded by the bachwezi- the demi-gods.
• Other clans of Buganda are believed to have come from the ssese islands.

• a) Good strong and able leaders like Kkyabagu, junju and Suna etc. who propelled it to prosperity by uniting the people and restructuring the existing administration system.
• b) Buganda Was small and a compact kingdom and therefore easy to manage. Other kingdoms like Bunyoro-Kitara were too large with a class system.
• c) Its strategic location in a defensible position in the lake region was of great advantage over her rivals Toro and Bunyoro. She lay next to Lake Victoria giving her defence, communication and transport advantage. On the east were small states of Toro and Ankole who posed no threat.
• d) Good climate and fertile soils in the region. This enabled successful growing of Bananas, their staple crop.
• e) The contacts with the Waswahili enabled her to gain riches and weapons/guns.
• f) The kingdom had a strong loyal army to defend it from her warring neighbors. The Kabaka even possessed a royal navy that kept guard over Lake Victoria.
• g) Existence of a centralized government making the kingdom cohesive.
• h) The ganda traditions allowing the kabaka to marry from every clan as means of ensuring unity.
• i) System of labour organization. The tradition demanded that farming be done by women while the men were involved in other activities such as politics, carpentry, war, bark cloth making and smithing
• j) The wars of conquest which finally led to her expansion.

• Buganda kingdom had a highly centralized monarchy under the kabaka who enjoyed absolute powers. His position was hereditary.
• The Kabaka’s Court was the nerve centre of the Baganda community. All symbols of Royal authority were kept in the court. E.g. the throne (Namulondo), royal Drums, spears and stools.
• The kabaka was the political leader of the Baganda kingdom. He was the Head of the traditional religion –lubale/ he was the chief priest. He was the judicial head and the final court of appeal/he was the supreme judge. The was the commander-in- -chief of the armed forces
• He appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. He controlled trade.
• The capital of the kingdom was at Mengo, where the palace, Lubiri, was situated.
• The kabaka appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. For example, he appointed the katikiro, omulamuzi and omuwanika i.e. prime minister, chief justice and treasurer respectively who assisted him in administration. He also appointed mugema (the senior most chief among the Bataka), Musenero (the chief Butler) and Mfumbiro (the chief baker)
• The katikiro was in charge of organizing tax collecting and public works. He planned wars in the
• Kabaka’s name. He had to protect the kabaka during war. He was responsible of informing the kabaka of the decisions he made on court issues.
• Below him were omulamuzi (chief justice) and omuwanika (treasurer) who were directly responsible to the kabaka.
• The Bataka were minor chiefs in charge of clans, guarded land, collected taxes, carried out conscription to the army and presented the page boys to the kabaka.
• Peasants served under chief and were to fight in wars. Slaves (badus) served the king chiefs in their homesteads. Pages and bagalagala (sons of chiefs and other nobles) served the kabaka too.
• To ensure unity the kabaka married from principal clans.
• There was a Lukiko which advised the kabaka and was the final court. It comprised 69 members who were nominated by the kabaka (positions were not hereditary). It made laws and debated issues concerning the kingdom. It also directed tax collection and planned expenditure, it acted as the final court of appeal, and it represented the needs of the people to the kabaka. It helped the kabaka in general administration. It checked the activities of government.

• The kingdom was divided into counties (Ssaza) and sub-counties. Each county was under Ssaza chiefs whose position was hereditary initially before the kabaka began to appoint them as a means of making them accountable. Each Ssaza was divided into a gombolola headed by a gombolola chief, who maintained law and order and collected taxes.
• The gombololas were further divided into smaller sub-divisions called miluka each under a miluka chief. The miluka was divided into kisoko.
• The smallest administrative unit among the Baganda was the village council The Abatongole appointed by the kabaka, governed the vassal states

• The kingdom was divided in social classes with the royal family occupying the top of the hierarchy, then ruling class, the chiefs who ruled over the peasants or commoners known as bakopi.
• At the bottom of the social class were the slaves (Badu) who were acquired mainly through raids on neighbouring communities such as Busoga, Toro and Bunyoro.
• The Baganda believed in the existence of many gods some of whom included;
  • a) Katonda, God the creator whose home was in heaven. The prayers to him were done every morning and were conducted by the head of the homestead.​
    • b) Kibuuka, God of war and thunder.
      • c) Mukasa, goddess of fertility who was worshipped in order to bless the nation with more children, livestock and a bumper harvest.
        • d) Kiwanuka, god of lightning.
          • e) Nawagenyi, goddess of Drought.
• The community also believed in the existence of ancestral spirits whose main responsibility was to maintain discipline in the clans since the spirits were believed to restrict their influence to close relatives. Balubaale were the spirits of people who had supernatural powers and were consulted through prophets or mediums.
• The Baganda had religious leaders, led by the kabaka, then the mediums, prophets, and medicine people.
• There also existed sorcerers called Balopo who were feared since they could cause harm to people.
• The Baganda religion however was greatly undermined by the influx of the Waswahili and Arab Muslims into the community in the 19th c.
• The Baganda society was polygamous. For example, the kabaka was required to marry from all clans to maintain links in the society.
• There was division of labour according to sex. Women tilled the land while men engaged in warfare, built houses, and made clothes from bark-cloth.
• As a form of rite of passage, the Baganda went through formal education that trained them in their rites.

• a) Buganda’s economy was based on agriculture and the production of the staple food bananas (matoke).
• b) The baganda also kept large herds of livestock. The bahima herded Kabaka’s herds. From the livestock, they obtained milk and meat to supplement their diet.
• c) The baganda conducted raids on their neighbours like the Buddu, Busoga and Kyaggwe through which they acquired slaves, livestock and ivory.
• d) There was division of labour, women worked in fields while men were involved in construction of roads, bark cloth making, smithing and war.
• e) The kingdom was deeply involved in local, regional and international trade. They exchanged bark cloth and beans for cattle from their neighbours. She exchanged slaves and hides for guns, glassware and cotton cloth from coastal traders.
• f) The baganda practiced iron working, producing hoes for cultivation and weapons for defence. Some of these items formed their trade items. Rich iron deposits were also acquired by waging wars against their neighbours.
• g) Handcraft was an important activity and included basketry and pottery.
• h) The textile industry consisted of bark cloth manufacture.
• i) Salt mining was an important activity.
• j) Fishing on lake Victoria
• k) The baganda also engaged in some hunting activities to acquire ivory.

• The Shona were a Bantu-speaking people who comprised the Rozwi, Kore kore, Zezuru and Manyika sub-groups. The first stone buildings in Zimbabwe are believed to have been the work of the Shona. Their capital was at Mapungubwe, south of the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashi rivers.
• About 1450 AD, the Rozwi Groups gained dominance and established a centralized political system. They established the Mwene Mutapa Empire which ruled until the time of the Ngoni invasion in the 1830s.

• The emperor was the head of the state and government. Succession of authority was hereditary. Important emperors included Chikura, Nyatsimba, Mutota and Matope. Religion played a role in government and united people. The emperor was a semi-divine religious leader, a military leader and the chief priest. He was the only one who could communicate with the spirits of the ancestors. It was believed that when Mwene Mutapa died, he became a Mudzimu and automatically qualified to be worshipped as a national ancestral spirit.
• The ancestral spirits (Vadzimu) communicated people’s problems to god. Religion also influenced laws.
• The priests were used as spies and link between the emperor and the people.
• Another unifying factor in the kingdom was the royal fire. It was from the continuous fire that each vassal chief carried a flame to his chiefdom that he kept burning as a symbol of national unity.
• The empire was divided into provinces namely Guruhaswa, Mbire, Utere, Banua, and Manyika each headed by a lesser chief. The most important chiefs in the empire sent their sons, with tribute in form of cattle, gold, slaves and ivory, each year to pay homage to the Mwene Mutapa as goodwill ambassadors
• There was a standing army of warriors which was used for defence and expansion of the kingdom. Revenue from trade was used to run the army and sustain the empire.
• The position of importance held by Mwene Mutapa led to the creation of a complex Style of administration around him.
• The government officials included the court steward, treasurer, commander-in-chief of the army and Mbokurumme (king’s sister-in-law). Others were the queen mother, the emperor’s sister and nine principal wives, the doorkeeper and the chief cook and head drummer. At the lower level were the lesser chiefs who paid tribute to the king by providing cattle, labour and agricultural produce.

The Shona country enjoyed ample rainfall with fertile soils thus enabling them to engage in the following economic activities;

• a) The Shona were mixed farmers who cultivated crops and reared animals. Among the agricultural produce were corn, millet, ground nuts, beans, watermelons, tomatoes, fruits and cabbages.
• b) The Shona practiced trade, specifically long distance trade between them and the Arabs and Waswahili at sofala. They gave Gold and ivory for cotton cloths, glassware, copper items, guns, daggers and knives.
• c) They were skillful hunters. They hunted elephants for their ivory which was in great demand. They also gathered wild honey and wild fruits to supplement their diet.
• d) The shona were skilled craftsmen who made articles like spears, hoes and knives. Others were goldsmiths who used gold to decorate. They also practiced cloth making from wild cotton and bark fibres.

• Among the shona, Mwene Mutapa was regarded as a divine king and was therefore venerated. When he was well, the nation was also well.
• The shona religion was based on the Mwari cult. They believed in the all powerful God, Mwari/Murungu. His worship was done through several priests who were mainly produced by the Rozwi clan.
• The priests presided over religious functions in sacred places of worship, shrines where sacrifices were offered.
• The shona believed in ancestral spirits. They had two kinds of spirits, Vadzimu or family spirits and Mhondoro or clan spirits. The spirits communicated though an intermediary, Svikiro, a departed family or clan spirit
• The shona had a national spirit Chamiruka who settled clan disputes and also protected the people against injustice in the government.
• The shona had a kinship system which was patrilineal (inheritance through the father) The shona were divided into clans whose names were coined from animals like leopard, monkey, elephant etc. it was a taboo to consume meat from such animals.
• They were a polygamous community which was viewed as a means to enable the family to have enough members to provide labour.
• The shona lived in stone buildings. Their skill in masonry is associated with the ruins of Mapungubwe found in Zimbabwe.

​The Asante are one of the Akan-speaking peoples who occupy the southern part of Ghana, west Africa. By the middle 18th c, the Asante/Ashanti had established the most dominant state in modern Ghana.

• The empire Developed in the 1670’s. It was formed as a result of competition for gold fields in the Akan forestland. In the 1500’s: Akan peoples came into contact with Portuguese traders. Wealthy owners of the Akan gold mines begin to trade gold for Benin slaves with the Portuguese.
• In the 1670’s, Osei Tutu was a military leader and head of the Oyoko clan of the Akan peoples Took control over a trade center near Kumasi and established this as his capital city. This happened after his maternal uncle Obiri Yeboa, the leader of the Oyoko clan was killed during war.
• A company of Akwamu troops are believed to have been instrumental in facilitating Osei Tutu’s rise to power. He conquered the neighboring chiefdoms and took control of their trade. He took the title of ASANTEHENE. He Collected taxes from the chiefdoms on profits from the goldmines. He built a standing army by demanding that chiefdoms provide soldiers. He sought the support of religious leaders throughout the region. For example, a priest of the shrine of the war god (Otutu0 called Anokye in Akwapim played a role in ensuring that Osei Tutu became the Asantehene.). He established the “GOLDEN STOOL” as a symbol of his rightful rule.

• Akan peoples become Asante (Ashanti)
• By 1700, Osei Tutu controlled most of the gold fields of the Akan forestland
• Osei Tutu was succeeded by Opoku Ware (1717-1750). During his rule, he will extend the Asante kingdom to include most of what is today present-day Ghana. The new city-states now included Kumasi, Juaben, Bekmai, Mampon, Kokofu and Nsula.
• Opuku Ware will participate in the slave trade with the Europeans, selling war captives and growing very wealthy.
• Asante were one of the last great kingdoms to fall to the Europeans in the late 19th century. Factors that led to the rise and growth of the Asante Empire.
  • a) The Asante had a strong economy based on agriculture. Both food and cash crops like Kola nuts were cultivated. This helped to increase the population.
  • b) The Asante had capable political leaders they included Obiri Yeboa (1670-1678), Osei Tutu (1680-1717) who unified the people through the Golden stool that he created and Opuku Ware (1720- 1750).
  • c) The several city-states that emerged around Kumasi supported each other. Most of them were related by the fact that they originated from the same Oyoko clan.
  • d) The growth of the Trans- Atlantic slave trade brought a lot of wealth to the Asante people. The wealth was instrumental in the prosperity of the Kingdom.
  • e) The centralized political system under the Asantehene provided stability.
  • f) The Odwira festival that was held annually helped to make the state more cohesive.
  • g) The Asante were brave and proud people, and the need to free themselves from the oppressive rule of Denkyira, their former masters, motivated them to create a strong state.

• The Asante had a centralized political system. The Nucleus of the Asante Empire was five city-states of Kumasi, Dwaben, Bekwai, Kokofu and Nsula.
• The empire comprised of three parts, namely Kumasi (Metropolitan Asante), Amatoo states and Provincial Asante. Each part had its own system of administration though the three cooperated in some areas. Kumasi was directly ruled by the Asantehene and was recognized as Kumasihene.

• These were the five states that lay 35 miles around Kumasi and which recognized the Asantehene as the supreme authority. The government of the metropolitan Asante consisted the confederacy council made of the Kings (Omanhene) of the various states and presided over by the Asantehene. The Asante Union provides a good example of a federal system of government. All the states within the metropolitan Asante paid tax to the Asantehene which was used to pay for the administration and form an army.
• Each of the five states had its own state council that made important decisions. Each also had its own Black stool that symbolized their power over the state.
• The omanhenes were expected to give the right of declaring war on another Omanhene, attended the annual Odwira festival (to pay allegiance to Asantehene, settle disputes and honor the dead), grant own subjects the right to appeal to the high court set up for the union of the capital and recognize the right of Asantehene to impose national levies.
• Neither the Asantehene nor the Omanhene enjoyed dictatorial powers.
• The kingdom had an army that was divided into several wings. Though overall leadership of the army was provided by the Asantehene, each Omanhene command his own forces. The Asantehene was deputized by Mamphohene who automatically take over army leadership whenever the Asantehene was unavailable.
• Among the Asante, there was compulsory military service for all able-bodied men in the empire (a system borrowed from the Akwamu).
• The Asantehene established a national festival called the Odwira festival during which all The Omanhene assembled in Kumasi to show their loyalty to the Asantehene, to honor the dead and to solve disputes amongst themselves. It also enhanced unity amongst the Asante states. The golden stool, an idea invented by a priest called Okomfo Anokye (he claimed it came from the sky in 1695) during the reign of Osei Tutu, made the office of the Asantehene acceptable. It was a source of unity as it bound together the Asante states since they all recognized its sacredness.

• It comprised all the states conquered by the Asante in the 18th century (subject states). Such people were represented in the army and paid taxes to the Asantehene. Osei Tutu appointed two consuls who resided in each subject state to supervise their affairs. An efficient bureaucracy was established in each o the provincial Asante states with the Asantehene appointing senior officials directly himself

• The Kingdom was composed of many communities who spoke the Akan language. The clans that made up the Akan speakers included the Akyem, Kwahu, the Fante, the Wassa, the Assin and the Akwapem. all these communities shared the same social institutions like the forty-day calendar, same marriage and naming rites
• The basic social unit was the clan
• They had a matrilineal system of inheritance. The birthright of each family passed through the mother from one generation to the other.
• The practiced polygamy marriage due to wealth and comfort in society and prohibited inter clan (paternal and maternal clans) marriages
• The Odwira festival helped unite the society besides the golden stool.
• The Asante was socially stratified into social classes e.g. the rulers, rich, peasant farmers and slaves. The Asantehene and his family comprised the royal family together with the Omanhene.
• The saves among the Asante were majorly war captives. Some of the female slaves could be elevated to concubines and later become entitled to some rights.
• They believed in magic and superstition and also worshipped gods and goddesses i.e. they were polytheists. Their supreme creator was Nyame (Nyambe).
• They believed in their ancestors as mediators between the people and God (gods). The Odwira festival was held annually to honour ancestors and solves my disputes. They offered sacrifices to their gods/ancestors including human sacrifices
• The Asante hence was considered semi-divine being and highly regarded Creative arts like dancing music, sculpture were highly respected in society. Economic organization of the Asante
• Being located in an area rich in terms of land fertility forest resources, mineral resources and rainfall, the Asante Empire thrived economically in the following ways.
  • a) Being located at the point of convergence of the trans-Atlantic trade routes, the Asante people participated in the trade providing gold, slaves and ivory in exchange for cotton, cloth, guns and gunpowder. They also provided middlemen and porters during the trade.
  • b) The Asante practiced agriculture, growing crops like yams, vegetables and fruits. They also kept livestock like cattle.
  • c) The community practiced gathering of Kola nuts and hunting for game meat from the forest to supplement their diet.
  • d) They practiced iron working and made crafts such as baskets and pots
• The Asante community however became a victim of the same economic wars it waged against her neighbours especially the Fante and Denkyira. In 1873, the British came to the aid of the Fante thus greatly weakening the Asante power.

• a) The type of political organization in the kingdom did not encourage cohesion. Some states in the provincial Asante had no attachment to the golden stool/were semi-independent/ condition of a state within a state.
• b) Leadership struggle between the Asante and dwaben; a neighboring rival of Asante’s state.
• c) Civil wars /Constant rebellions from the conquered states /wars with other tribes e.g. war with the afante.
• d) British interference in the Asante affairs through the 19th c. they had a burning desire to destroy the Asante empire and colonize the region.. they even supported dwaben in her war against Asantehene
• e) Periodic interference with trade and trade routes as a result of wars weakened the financial position of the empire i.e. Abolition of slave trade as a major source of income.
• f) The Anglo-Asante wars which the British won led to final destruction of the empire.

This is the process by which people are attracted to live in towns or large settlements. An urban centre is any area with a human population of 20,000 people or more.

​Some of the early urban centres in Africa included Cairo, Meroe/Merowe and Kilwa.

1. Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe located at an intersection of transport routes.
2. Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of towns e.g. Cairo.
3. Industrial development –areas of industries grew up as towns since they attracted laborers e.g. Cairo.
4. Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes.
5. Strategic location which ensured security and thus ample growth e.g. Kilwa.
6. Growth of religion –some grew rapidly because they were religious centres.
7. Mining –led to development of towns’ e.g. Meroe, Johannesburg.

Cairo.
This is the capital city of Egypt. The city was founded in 969 AD when the conquerors from Tunisia, ‘The Fatimid Dynasty’ invaded and conquered Egypt

1. The Nile River provided water for domestic use and was also a means of transport. This enabled Cairo to grow.
2. Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of Cairo.
3. Industrial development –various industries developed in Cairo. Food processing industries and construction works. The industries attracted migrants from rural areas.
4. Fertile Nile Valley. the Valley had adequate rainfall and the river always carried silt which it deposited downstream to provide
5. The Suez Canal which was opened in 1869 opened a new trade route which encouraged the arrival of thousands of Europeans. Commercial, administrative and public buildings were constructed during this time.
6. Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes. The Strategic location along the Nile attracted caravans which would pass through Cairo from North, west and Central Africa
7. The opening of the Aswan High Dam in 1902 enhanced food production through irrigation thus influencing Cairo’s growth.
8. The effects of the two world wars which disrupted Egypt’s trade with other countries thus compelling her to find ways of substituting imports. This boosted industrialization
9. Cairo is a cultural centre being home to treasures preserved from the early Egyptian civilization and Islamic culture in their museums. ‘The city of a thousand Minarets’.
10. Cairo also grew as a centre of education and medicine. Several institutions of higher learning such as the University of Cairo, American University and Azar University contributed to this.

1. It was a national capital and a political centre of the Arab world.
2. It serves as the transport and commercial centre of North Africa and the Middle East.
3. It is a recreational centre housing many recreational facilities like stadiums and entertainment halls
4. Cairo has been a historical centre being the house to the Egyptian civilization for over 5000 years
5. Cairo serves as an industrial centre. Many of these developed during the industrialization process. For example, textile, vehicle and communication equipment assembly plants.

• High population. Cairo is the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. One fifth of Egypt’s population stays in Cairo. In 1988, her population was 11 million.
• Scarcity of food. The high population in the city has caused food shortage.
• Unemployment. The number of unemployed people in Cairo is increasing every year mainly due to the high rate of migration to the city and the natural population increase.
• Housing problems. Between the Nile and the main airport, between 250,000 to 900,000 poor people have put up shanties. This area is commonly reffered to as the ‘city of Death’.
• Traffic jams.
• Pollution from the industries, vehicle exhaust, desert storms and garbage burning.
• High crime rate. This is mostly due to the high unemployment level 

1. The food shortage problem is being tackled through reclaiming land for agriculture. The Aswan high Dam provides water for irrigation.
2. The housing problem is being addressed by constructing industries in the suburbs to reduce the population in the city.
3. Traffic jams have been eased through the launching of the Cairo Metro in 1987, which was Africa’s first subway system, which serves the Ramses station to the north and Helwan area to the south. It conveys 60,000 passengers per hour.

​This was the second capital of the kingdom of Kush and emerged as a city in 650 BC. It rose to become an important industrial centre and specifically iron working producing weapons, hunting and farming tools.

1. Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe was located at an intersection of transport routes (from east via the red sea and from north via Egypt). This promoted trade with other parts of the world.
2. Abundance of wood fuel, from the heavily forested Blue Nile / white Nile intersection area, which was a key to the prosperity of the iron-working industry.
3. Mining –Merowe was located in a region endowed with a lot of iron.

1. The Merotic language developed to replace the Egyptian language previously used by the Nubian founders of Merowe.
2. New architectural developments took place in the region. These were characterized by tombs where rulers were buried after death, ruins of temples, palaces and homes.
3. Other industries developed besides the iron working industry. For example, weaving of cotton, cloth and pottery

1. Meroe was a centre of iron working hence an early industrial centre.
2. A mining centre since Meroe had iron ore, which it mined.
3. A religious function since it had many temples where people worshipped their gods. The priests who headed the Meroe church had their headquarters in Meroe.
4. It was a centre of trade.
5. It was an administrative and political centre.
6. Transport centre-major trade routes converged and radiated from Meroe.

1. The rise of Axum kingdom of Ethiopia which denied her access to the red sea.
2. The increasing desertification of the region, perhaps due to the rapid deforestation. The city began declining in 350 BC.

1. The town is among the city states that developed along the east African coast. Her greatness was due to the Persian influence. One of its Shirazi rulers from Banadir Coast in Persia, Ali Ibn Hassan, transformed the town into a large city.
2. The sultan erected a stone citadel to protect the island from external enemies. He also forced other conquered city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa.
3. Later on Sultan al-Hassan Ibn Sulaiman I built the Great mosque of Kilwa in 1270 AD and a luxurious palace referred to by historians as Husuni Kubwa.

1. Exemplary leadership provided by the Shirazi Leaders who kept enemies off and forced the neighbouring city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa.
2. The strategic location of Kilwa enabled her to attract merchants as it was a convenient stopping place.
3. Monopoly of the sofala Gold Trade. The control of the Sofala Gold trade had fallen in the hands of Kilwa by 1300 AD
4. The gleaming buildings of Kilwa such as the great Mosque and palace made her the Jewel of the Zenj Coast, minting her own coins to add to her prosperity.. the mosque became a tourist attraction later own

1. It was a major trading centre flourishing mainly due to the gold trade.
2. It was a major defence centre since it was heavily fortified against external aggression by a stone citadel.
3. It was a religious centre. Mosques for Islamic worship were located at Kilwa e.g the great mosque.
4. It was an administrative centre which housed palaces for the rulers and other rich people. However 14th C AD, Kilwa’s prosperity began to decline due to the following reasons.

1. Disruption of the Gold trade/ civil wars among communities.
2. Dynastic rivalries/ family feuds.
3. Series of rebellions among some of the towns.
4. Conquest by the Portuguese who even burnt the towns.

1. Collapse of state system and kingdoms for example Kush collapse and the coastal city states.
2. Collapse of trade and their economic systems e.g. the trans-Saharan trade and long distance trade.
3. Collapse of Arab influence I east Africa and east Africa.
4. Impact of Portuguese conquest leading to destruction of towns like manda and decline of others.
5. Introduction of new types of trade e.g. legitimate trade which replaced slave trade.
6. European colonization brought in a new social political and economic order.
7. Exhaustion of mineral resources e.g. gold as in case of sofala and Kilwa as well as Meroe. Some minerals lost value.
8. Changes in transport routes as new roads by-passed some towns thus diverting trade to other centres e.g. Timbuktu
9. As a result of stiff competition, some towns dwindled as others expanded.

Athens.

• This is one of the early states in ancient Greece that flourished after the Persian wars of between 490-480 BC.
• Athens developed from a farming settlement situated in a defensive site. It had many beautiful buildings such as the Parthenon (a large temple built between 460 and 430 BC in honour of Athena, the goddess of Athens). The acropolis was the highest part of the town.
• Athens had narrow streets and some of its houses were made of unbaked bricks or mud and thatched roofs.
• There were frequent outbreaks of diseases due to poor sanitation.
• The concept of democracy first developed in Athens. At the centre of the city was a market, Agora, which was used as an assembly hall for debates.
• Athenians were divided into four classes.
  • a) First class –the richest that were the most heavily taxed.
  • b) Second class- provided the cavalry for the army.
  • c) Third class- provided the soldiers for the infantry.
  • d) The fourth class- the poorest and who paid no taxes.
• Athens began to decline due to the Peloponnesian wars (431-404 BC). It was finally crushed in 338 BC by Phillip of Macedonia.
• Currently Athens is the capital of Greece with a population of 4 million.

1. Trade and commerce. Their soils of the surrounding areas were infertile and, therefore could not support agriculture. The Athenians therefore resorted to trade to obtain foods in exchange for wine, wool and olive oil.
2. Security. Athens was located in an easily defensible place. The town was surrounded by water, valleys and highlands making it difficult for an external enemy to attack.
3. Religious activities. The area was a worship centre. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town.
4. Accessibility and communication network. The port of Athens was located about six kilometres from the city thus making Athens a transport centre.
5. Availability of water.

1. It was a cultural centre. The Greeks loved to watch play. In Athens, there was the great theatre of Epidaurus.
2. An educational centre. In Athens, every person was taught how to read and write. Athens became a centre of scholarly work producing great thinkers like Socrates, Plato, Pythagoras, Archimedes and Aristotle.
3. Athens was a sports centre. There were Gymnasiums where boys were taught games which were developed into what came to be known as Olympics.
4. Religious centre. The Parthenon temple was a great manifestation of this function. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town.

1. The capital city of England, it is situated on the estuary of the river Thames. Its name is derived from the name Llyn Dun which means ‘Celtic Lake Fort’. The town developed during the Roman rule in Britain in A.D 43.
2. By 314 AD London had become an early centre of Christianity.
3. In 1381, the city was adversely affected by a serious peasant, revolt that led to massive destruction of property.
4. By 18th c, London had emerged as an elegant city though however also with numerous urban related problems. In 1890, it hosted the world’s first electric train.

1. Trade-money obtained from trading was used to build the city.
2. Industrialization-industry such as textile, ship building, metal works, etc led to the growth of London.
3. Improved transport –London is well served by a network of railway and roads. This facilitated the movement of goods and people.
4. Shipping activities-there are many harbours in London enabling expanded loading and unloading activities
5. Population growth.
6. London was the seat of government for a very long time.

1. It was a transport and communication centre. The city was inter-connected with roads which served various parts of Britain. The city houses the main international airports on UK. E.g Heathrow- the busiest airport in the world.
2. It is a political and administrative capital with offices for the Prime Minister and cabinet. The Monarchical offices are also located here.
3. It is a commercial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders.
4. An industrial centre. London was an early centre of the textile industry. There are light service industries in the city.
5. It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the oxford university, the University of London, founded in 1836, etc.
6. London is a historical centre. The city has theatres for the performance of cultural activities and museums which display artefacts of Historical importance.

1. Like many large cities worldwide, London has its share of problems:
2. overcrowding,
3. Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. In 1988, for example, nearly 1 in 8 people were unemployed throughout London and the situation in the inner city was worst
4. Poor housing and homelessness. This has led to development of slums.
5. Transportation is another problem. However, an excellent public system has helped to alleviate this.
6. Air pollution continues to be a major challenge.
7. Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
8. Poverty. This was a greater problem in London in the initial stages.

Nairobi.
Nairobi developed as a depot and camp for the railway workers during the construction of the kenya-Uganda railway

1. Excellent location in an area almost midway between Mombasa and Lake Victoria.
2. There was adequate supply of water.
3. The land was suitable for construction of workshops as it was flat.
4. The climate was suitable for Europeans. Cool temperatures at an altitude of 1700m.
5. It was surrounded by a fertile countryside producing adequate foods.
6. Transfer of the seat of the colonial government in 1907.

1. It was a transport and communication centre. The city is inter-connected with roads which served various parts of the country. The city houses the main international airport- JKIA.
2. It is an administrative capital with offices for the head of state, cabinet, parliament and department of defence.
3. It is a regional headquarter of various international bodies like UN, ILO etc.
4. It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders.
5. An industrial centre. Nairobi’s industrial area hosts many key industries in Kenya and east Africa.
6. It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Nairobi, kenya polytechnic and other key institutions
7. It is a tourist centre. The town boasts of various tourist attractions such as the Nairobi National Park, National Museums etc.

1. Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
2. Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population.
3. Poor housing. The population growth in Nairobi to 3 million has not corresponded to the development of housing.
4. Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities.
5. Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding.
6. Poor town planning has led to poor drainage, especially during heavy rains when a lot of flooding occurs
7. Pollution continues to be a major challenge in Nairobi. The factories located in the city are a cause of air and noise pollution.
8. Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion odf water reservoirs.
9. The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high.

1. New housing projects are being developed. For example the Mathare slums upgrading project.
2. The education and other social services are being provided through a cost-sharing scheme between the government and the town dwellers.
3. The government is addressing the transport/congestion problem through the upgrading of the Thika superhighway to an eight lane highway; the Nairobi Syokimau Railway service was commissioned by president Kibaki I November 2012 to de-congest jogoo road. Etc.
4. The government is encouraging the expansion of the informal sector as an alternative source of employment.
5. The government is rehabilitating street families by taking them to schools to acquire relevant skills to make them useful to the nation.
6. New water projects have been put in place. For example, the third Nairobi water Project from River Chania.
7. The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS.

• The city started as a mining camp in 1886 after the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand. This attracted thousands of people coming to prospect for minerals and seek for employment.
• By the end of 19th c, the population of Johannesburg had risen to 166,000 people.

• Existence of minerals/discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand which resulted in a rush of people to the area.
• Availability of energy i.e. coal which was an important source of energy to the mines, industries and homes.
• Excellent location in the veldt/plain making construction work easy.
• Its proximity to Vaal River which supplied plenty of water to industries and domestic use.
• Area around Johannesburg is fertile and therefore agriculturally productive ensuring steady supply of food.
• The organization of the city council which has ensured that financial control and revenue collection is effectively and the city able to manage its growth problems.
• Government policy of supporting industrial development. This has favored its growth. 

• It was a transport and communication centre. The city has a highly developed network of transport lines since it served the mining industry. In June 2010, it became the first city in Africa to house an electric train service.
• An industrial centre. Its manufacturing functions include mining, metalwork, engineering, diamond cutting, jewellery manufacturing and food processing.
• It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders. It is also a major shopping centre in South Africa.
• It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Witwatersrand, teacher training colleges and other key institutions.

• The problem of racial segregation. The black Africans who work around Johannesburg were often treated almost as slaves though they were the majority in the country.
• Poor housing. Most of the workers who work in and around Johannesburg live in shanties , mainly because of underpayment
• Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. Though the city is an industrial town, her industries have failed to provide sufficient employment for all people in the town.
• Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
• A large gap between the affluent class, especially the Europeans and the poor people who majorly are African
• Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding.
• The city has the highest crime rate in the world.
• Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities.
• Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion of water reservoirs.
• The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high.

• The apartheid regime was ended in 1994 thus ending the problem of racial segregation.
• The new government of South Africa is trying to come up with better housing estates.
• Crime has been contained by creating more job opportunities.
• The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS

• The practice of agriculture forced people to adopt a sedentary lifestyle. Such settlement formed the basis of the earliest urban centres.
• Early agriculture led to specialization. The areas where the potters, iron smelters weavers and fishermen did their work grew up into urban centres
• From the agrarian revolution, there was adequate food for town dwellers.

• The revolution in Europe led to a landless society who moved to urban centres seeking employment. This promoted urban growth.
• Increased agricultural production ensured steady supply of raw materials to the new industries hence further growth of the industries.
• Agricultural expansion meant the big farmers had to borrow loans hence the expansion of banking facilities in towns leading to further growth.
• Agricultural produce entering and leaving countries had to be handled in ports hence towns near coasts grew.

• The establishment of many factories drew many people to towns in search of employment the mining industry attracted many people to work in the mines. The mining camps soon grew up into towns.
• Industrial revolution stimulated innovations in transport and communication ensuring faster movement of people to further expansion of trading towns.
• The growth of industry has led to expansion of port towns to handle increased manufactured goods for export and raw material for factories e.g. growth of London, Budapest, Marseilles, Lagos and Cairo.
• The use of machines replaced human labour and caused layoffs. Those who lost their jabs sometimes became a security risk hence an increase in crime.
• The many inefficient factories that came up after the revolution have caused massive air and water pollution.
• Rural urban migration has exerted pressure on the limited resources and services the towns can offer.

• Rural –urban migration by Africans looking for better opportunities led to increased crime levels and insecurity for the Europeans.
• Air pollution which also affected them.
• Creation of employment for the Europeans in the developing industries.
• Creation of markets for agricultural produce due to increased urban population.
• Europeans were deprived of cheap African labour as most of them moved to urban areas.