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The First World War (1914 -1918)
​By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
World War I
​World War I or the First World War was a war fought by many countries, which is why it is called a "world" war. It started in 1914 and ended in 1918. 135 countries took part in World War I, and more than 15,000,000 people died in the war.
World War One - Causes
​The First World War, which began in August 1914, was directly triggered by the assassination of the Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, on 28 June 1914 by Bosnian revolutionary, Gavrilo Princip. This event was, however, simply the trigger that set off declarations of war.
The actual causes of the war were;
The First Moroccan Crisis
The First Moroccan Crisis clearly indicated that Germany’s relation with France was at best fragile. In 1905 Morocco was one of the few African states not occupied by a European power. In May 1905 it was agreed that an international conference should be held on Morocco in Algeciras. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 The main aim was to decide what was to be done with regards to Morocco. The two main protagonists at Algeciras were France and Germany. However, it soon became very clear to Germany that other European powers had sided with France – Britain, Spain and Italy. The Algeciras Conference ended on April 7th 1906.The Germans got very little out of the conference. The plan to create a triple alliance or even a quadruple alliance to isolate Great Britain failed. Arguably, by the end of the conference, Britain and France had even closer ties to one another. A German presence in North Africa had also failed to materialize. The French media portrayed Germany as an inferior nation, much to the concern of the more experienced politicians in Paris. The Algeciras Conference may have ‘resolved’ the crisis in Morocco but the outcome clearly defined Europe into certain camps. At this conference Germany publicly lost out. The Agadir Crisis of 1911 (the Second Moroccan Crisis.) The Agadir Crisis occurred in 1911 just four years after the First Moroccan Crisis. Germany’s attention was diverted after the 1905-06 crises by other issues, mainly building up her navy so that it rivaled the Royal Navy. As a result France spent five years having far more influence in Morocco than Germany. They backed the corrupt Sultan, Abdul Aziz, who was accused by some of his countrymen of selling out Morocco to the French. The half-brother of Aziz, Mulay Hafid, took a stand on behalf of the Moroccan people who proclaimed him Sultan in January 1908. Fez also came under attack. In April 1911 a decision was made in Germany to send troops to Fez to support the foreign contingent living there. The plan was to send German warships to Agadir and Mogador ostensibly to defend German citizens in Morocco. A gunboat, the ‘Panther’, was sent to Agadir on July 1st 1911. What part did the Agadir Crisis play in the outbreak of World War One? The episode proved that Germany was hell-bent on trying to dominate Europe as a whole. Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George were among those who believed this. 7) Bosnian Crisis In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war. Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria-Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high. 8) The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand A secret society called Ujedinjenje Ili Smrt, ('Union or Death') or Black Hand was founded in Belgrade, an outgrowth of an older Serb nationalist group: Narodna Odbrana. When it was learned that the Heir-Apparent to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was scheduled to visit Sarajevo in June of 1914, the Black Hand decided to assassinate him. Three young Bosnians were recruited, trained and equipped: Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez. The murders of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie brought Austro-Serbian tensions to a head. As Vienna took a hard line against Serbia, the other powers in Europe took sides. The wheels of war gained speed. The Crisis of July turned into world war, just over thirty days after Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were shot. System of Alliances. By 1914, Europe had divided into two camps. 1) The Triple Alliance was Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary. 2) The Triple Entente was Britain, France and Russia. 1) The Triple Alliance The alliance between Germany and Austria was natural. Both spoke the same language - German - and had a similar culture. Austria was in political trouble in the south-east of Europe - the Balkans. She needed the might of Germany to back her up if trouble got worse. Italy had joined these countries as she feared their power on her northern border. Each member of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy) promised to help the others if they were attacked by another country. By the close of the war the Central Powers had been extended to incorporate Bulgaria and Turkey 2) The Triple Entente The Entente Powers comprised a military alliance - driven by a variety of inter-related treaties - of France, Great Britain and Russia. The Entente alliance sprang from the military concerns of Germany's neighbours to east and west. Russia and France; accordingly in 1894 they signed an alliance based upon fears of growing German power. Britain subsequently forged alliances with both Russia and France once it became clear that Germany intended to construct a navy to match the Royal Navy in the late 1890s. Thus the Entente Alliance was not a formal alliance. The term was later replaced by the more general 'Allies' to include other nations including Italy and Japan. ​THE COURSE OF THE WAR.
The war was fought in three continents; Europe, Africa and Asia and both on land and on the sea. In Europe, the war was fought in two fronts
The Western Front was where most of the fighting between Germany and the Allies happened.
The German Army went into Belgium on the 4 August. On the same day, Great Britain started a war on Germany, because Britain was a friend of Belgium. When the Germans got to the Belgian city of Liège, they did finally push the Belgians out of the city, but it had taken longer than the German generals had planned. On December 24-25, 1914, there was a temporary halt to the fighting on parts of the Western Front. This was the Christmas truce. The initial force behind the Christmas Truce came from the Germans. Christmas was celebrated in full, with men visiting across the lines and gifts of food and tobacco being exchanged. As Christmas ended, both sides reluctantly returned to war, the bonds forged at Christmas slowly eroded as units rotated out and the fighting became more ferocious. By 1915, the Western Front had become a stalemate as both sides engaged in trench warfare. The men on both sides took spades and dug lines of trenches went all the way from Switzerland to the North Sea, because they did not want to be killed. In front of the trenches, there was barbed wire that cut anyone who tried to climb over it, and mines that blew up anyone who tried to run across the "no man's land" that was in between the trenches. Gas was also an important weapon used. The war in the west was static in the next three years and attempts by the military commanders on both sides to break the stalemate led to deaths of many soldiers. At the battle of the Somme in 1916 60,000 British men died in a single day. It was one of the bloodiest days in the history of the British army. Seeking to shatter the Anglo-French lines, the German Chief of Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, began planning a massive assault on the French city of Verdun. The Battle of Verdun lasted from February 21, 1916 until December 18, 1916 and was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War I. A brutal battle of attrition, Verdun cost the French an estimated 161,000 dead, 101,000 missing and 216,000 wounded. German losses were approximately 142,000 killed and 187,000 wounded.
2. The Eastern Front was fought in Central and Eastern Europe and was one of the main places where World War I took place. The start of the war on the eastern front involved an attack on Russia on 1st of august 1914. On August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia and six days later entered into hostilities with France and Britain. The Russians were decisively defeated by allied forces of Austria and Germany at the battle of Tanneberg in august 1914 and at the battle of Missourian
Lakes in September 1914. War in the seas
Some of the fiercest battles between the Allies and the central powers took place in the sea. By May 1916, Germany’s main fleet was stationed in the North Sea to attack Britain’s fleet. However, the British intelligence decoded the German wireless code and was able to prepare the royal navy to fully counter Germany’s challenge. Both sides suffered casualties in the war that followed. 11 german ships and 14 British ships were lost.
Importance of Britain’s supremacy at sea a) The British naval forces assisted in blocking the central powers particularly the Germans from accessing food and raw materials from other parts of the world. This derailed their war plans. b) Her naval supremacy enabled the allies to capture colonies of the central powers. c) The sea blockade enabled the allies to maintain uninterrupted communication with other allied forces, as well as safeguard the british food and raw material supplies from other parts of the world. The final phase of World War 1 The final phase of the war was a second Germany onslaught on France in 1918 where the Germans were decisively defeated in the hands of USA soldiers. End of World War I. Two events that led to the end of World War I were: 1) Russia’s withdrawal from the war after the Great Russian revolution. 2) The declaration of war by the United States of America against the central powers. The First Russian Revolution In 1917, there was a revolution in Russia. The Russian people didn't want to fight anymore, because the war had been putting burdens on them, and many of them were poor and hungry. The Second Russian Revolution Two factions fought to rule over Russia. The passive Mensheviks lost against radical Bolsheviks. The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) which was Communist who followed the ideas of Karl Marx. The new government sued the Germans for peace, and signed a peace treaty called Brest-Litvosk with the Central Powers in March 1918 at the city of Brest Litovsk. The Germans and Russians stopped fighting. This gave Germany lots of land in Eastern Europe and the Baltic Sea USA entry into the war. The German generals using submarines named U-boats (underwater boats) attacked American ships (Lusitania) that were carrying food and weapons to Great Britain. Some Americans were killed by the submarines. Germany also wrote a secret telegram note to Mexico suggesting that the two countries work together to attack the United States (the Zimmerman Telegram- because the person who sent it was named Arthur Zimmerman-the german foreign minister). Other reasons why USA entered the war on the side of the Allies were;
The socialist politicians declared Germany a republic and met with the Supreme Commander of the allied forces on 7th November 1918, Ferdinand Foch, to negotiate for end of the war with very stiff terms to the Germans. The stiff terms given to the Germans included;
Reasons why the allies won World War I.
1 Comment
What is democracy? The is derived from the Greek word Democratia (Demos meaning people and Kratas meaning ‘rule or power’). It is a form of government where political decisions are directly in the hands of the citizens. Key aspects of a real democracy.
Types of democracy
Merits of democracy
Demerits of democracy.
Principles of democracy. |
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The constitution of Kenya is a supreme law that binds all people and all state organs at national and county level. It outlines the structure of government, defines the powers and prerogatives of the head of state, states the compositions, functions and powers of parliament, states the compositions of the executives and outlines the duties and rights of the citizens.
Constitutions vary in various countries depending on different experiences and their form is determined by the following.
- a) The historical background of a country
- b) Geographical factors. For example the numerous islands of Japan must be catered for in their constitution
- c) Religious beliefs of the people. Some countries have the Islamic Sharia law in their constitution e.g Libya and Somali
- d) Race composition of a country. For example, in South Africa the apartheid racial policy had been included in their constitution.
Functions of a constitution
- a) The constitution provides the legal ground from which the laws of the country are made.
- b) It spells out the powers of government and its relationship to the governed.
- c) It spells out the rights and duties of all citizens. It also provides the options a citizen has, legally, if those rights and freedoms are violated.
Types of constitutions.
​1. Written constitution
- This is a constitution in which the basic principles concerning the organization of government, powers of its various agencies and rights of the subjects are consciously written down in one document.
- The first country to adopt a written constitution was USA after she attained political independence from Britain on 4th July 1776. France adopted it in 1791following the French revolution of 1789. The primary objective of these adoptions was to include the rights of the citizens to avoid abuse by those in power.
- Other countries with written constitutions include many European, African, Latin American and Asian countries. Kenya also has a written constitution.
Characteristics of a written constitution.
- a) It acts as a standard of reference to which the acts of the government of the day may always be compared.
- b) It is a rigid document that cannot be altered easily.
- c) It is only amended through a clearly spelt out procedure which is followed to the letter.
- d) There must be a special body entrusted by the legislature with the work of drafting the constitution.
- e) Once drafted the constitution must get the approval of the legislature.
Advantages of a written constitution.
- a) Since the procedures of amending a constitution are clearly spelled out, it is not easy for politicians or other interest groups in the society to alter it.
- b) In case of a crisis, the constitution provides very clear guidelines on the procedures to be followed, thus restoring stability in the country.
- c) Since a written constitution is rigid, it therefore recognizes that there are fundamentals in a state, e.g rights of citizens, powers and duties of the president, which should never be easily changed. Change can only be done after adequate consideration.
- d) It is fundamental to a newly formed nation so as to take off in an orderly and organized manner.
- e) A written constitution is important to ensure that the identity of the various groups are preserved and maintained in a country with diverse racial groupings, religion and ethnic composition.
- f) Since it is arrived at after thorough and careful consideration by all, it therefore unites the people in the nation as it would have acquired recognition and acceptance from the majority of the citizens
Disadvantages of a written constitution.
- a) Due to its rigidity, it can fail to respond to changing circumstances and can therefore easily become obsolete.
- b) A written constitution tends to make the judiciary too powerful as it I the only body that interprets the document. Where the executive and the legislature control the judiciary, the constitution can easily be manipulated.
- c) Some written constitutions are too detailed and rarely understood by the ordinary citizens.
- d) The procedure for amending the constitution is slow and costly. This causes delays which could lead to civil disorder in a society
2. Unwritten constitution
Sources of British constitution.
- a) Statutes. This refers to an Act of Parliament. Examples of statutes that comprise the British constitution are;
- Act of Union with Scotland of 1707 that determined the territorial boundaries within which the United Kingdom’s constitution operates.
- Parliament Act of 1911 that governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Representatives
- a) The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1834 which determine succession to the throne.
- b) Customs. This refers to ancient or traditional practices or the common law. For example, the first born inheriting the throne.
- c) Laws of precedents. Past accepted principles may be applied to a new set of facts in a judgment and this may eventually become part of the law of the land.
- d) Customs of parliament. House procedures including standing orders and other regulations are part of the British constitution.
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e) Historical documents. The following two Important documents form part of the British constitution;
- The Magna Carta (1215AD) that contained the promises by the England King that he would not levy taxes outside the three legal feudal taxes without the consent of the legal counsel.
- The Petition of Right (1628) in which King Charles I agreed not to levy taxes unless through the Act of Parliament.
- f) The Conventions and Practices that have become respected over the years are also part of the British constitution.
Advantages of unwritten constitution
- a) It is flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances in the society. This is especially valuable during periods of rapid socio-economic and political changes.
- b) It is indigenous and therefore suited for a state.
- c) It can be changed by ordinary legislative process.
- d) It provides continuity with the nation’s traditions and is therefore accepted and respected by the people.
Disadvantages of an unwritten constitution.
- a) It gives the courts too much work in handling matters as they search for constitutional principles not only in judicial decisions but in different statutes and customs.
- b) Because of the nature of the unwritten constitution, it is not easy to protect the rights of people effectively as the fundamentals of the state are not recorded in a few or a single document.
- c) An unwritten constitution tends to be vague and indefinite as compared to the written constitution.
- d) An unwritten constitution presupposes that the people are politically conscious and alert and will ensure that their rights and liberties are respected.
Features/qualities of a good constitution.
- a) Definiteness; it must depict clear intelligence and one which facilitates thinking. It must define its content clearly.
- b) It should be comprehensive/ it must be short but inclusive of all the issues involved in government operation.
- c) Should be durable and elastic/ it should neither be too rigid to amend or change nor so flexible as to encourage interference of its basic principle.
- d) Should be able to protect fundamental rights and freedom of citizen/a bill of rights must be provided for in the constitution, showing the extent to which the government can interfere with individual rights.
- e) Amendment procedure must be stated clearly.
- f) The constitution must be representative of the diverse social and political spectrum of the people.
- g) It must exhibit supremacy of the people/ it must make the will of the people as the basis of government.
- h) It must stipulate the choice of government through free and fair elections
- i) Statement of national wealth. /It must have a clear statement on how resources are to be managed and how wealth created is to be distributed.
Constitution making process in Kenya in pre-colonial, colonial and post colonial eras.
- The rules and regulation that formed the constitutional basis of pre-colonial communities in Kenya were mainly formulated by the councils of elders and then handed down from generation to generation.
- The constitution was unwritten constitution guiding only the political, economic and socio-cultural activities
- Kenya was under the British colonial rule after the Berlin Conference upto 1963. The constitutional developments in the country were greatly influenced by the settlement of immigrant communities like the white settlers, the Asians and Christian missionaries. These communities competed with the Africans for control of economic resources and political power.
- The turning point in Kenya’s pre-colonial constitutional developments was the outbreak of Mau Mau war and subsequent declaration of a State Of Emergency on 20th October 1952 by Sir Evelyn Barring.
- When the colonial secretary Oliver Lyttelton visited Kenya in 1954, he proposed the following constitutional reforms.
- Establishment of a multi-racial council of ministers representing the three races setting ground for two Indian and one African minister (B. A Ohanga became the first African Minister)
- It Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO
- Lifting the ban on African political parties/district associations.
- In 1958, a new constitution was proposed by Lennox Boyd. The constitution led to increased number of elected Africans in the legislative council (from 8 to 14). It led to introduction of multi-racial representation in the legislative council. It led to the increase of the number of African ministers to two.
- The African elected members demanded for a constitutional conference culminating into the independence constitution.
The first Lancaster House Conference (1960)
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Attended by all members of Legco and two nominated members, the conference received the following demands;
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a) Africans demanded for true democracy, where one man would have one vote.
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b) The Arabs wanted to retain the ten-mile coastal strip, while Somalis wanted reunification with Somalia.
- c) Michael Blundell, representing a section of Europeans demanded for a multi-racial government while Captain Briggs representing the white extremists demanded for creation of provinces along racial lines.
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b) The Arabs wanted to retain the ten-mile coastal strip, while Somalis wanted reunification with Somalia.
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a) Africans demanded for true democracy, where one man would have one vote.
- All these proposal were moderated by the British government
- The period after the first Lancaster House conference witnessed a lot of differences among Africans and among other races. Among the Africans, the differences culminated into the formation of KANU in March 1960 at Kiambu with James Gichuru as president and KADU in Ngong Town with Ronald Ngala as the president.
- The main difference between KADU and KANU was that while KANU was advocating gor a unitary government, KADU wanted a federal system
- When KANU refused to form government despite winning the elections, demanding for the release of Jomo Kenyatta, KADU formed a rather minority government that was heavily dominated by the colonial officials. Such a government was rejected by most people thus creating instability that led to the British Authorities calling for the second Lancaster House Conference.
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The following important issues were discussed;
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a) The future of the coastal strip that belonged to the sultan prior to colonialism.
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b) The future of North Eastern Province(North Frontier District)
- c) Security of the minority.
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b) The future of North Eastern Province(North Frontier District)
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a) The future of the coastal strip that belonged to the sultan prior to colonialism.
- The participants in the formulation of the independence constitution were representatives of various political parties: - Paul Ngei (APP), KADU and KANU. Others were representatives of the Asian and European communities.
- The 1962 conference settled for a federal structure with a strong central government.
- A coalition government was formed briefly but when the 1962 constitution was promulgated, it was followed by a general election in May 1963.
- The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by the British Parliament
- The 1963 constitution established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister,
- The Queen of England remained Head of State.
Independence (1963)
- Kanu won the May elections and Kenya Attained internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. Kenya attained full independence on 12th December 1963 when the Queen ceased to be the head of state.
- Kenya has been using the Independence Constitution upto August 2010 though with so many amendments.
- a) The independence constitution provided for a regional/majimbo government with each of the seven regions having a regional assembly and president. The boundaries of the regions were given protection in the constitution.
- b) It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives/upper house and lower house. The lower house comprised 117 elected members and 12 special members. The senate comprised 41 members representing the 41 administrative districts and one representing Nairobi city though the senate was subordinate to the House of Representatives, it had powers to authorize declaration of a state of emergence, 65% of the senators were required to approve the amendment of constitution. Also all Bills required approval of both houses.
- c) The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister (appointed by the governor) was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. The powers of the governor were defence of the country, foreign affairs, internal security and approval of legislation.
- d) The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government.
- e) It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individual’s rights. The Bill of rights was modeled on the European convention on Human Rights and Fundamental freedoms.
- f) The constitution provided for an elaborate scheme to protect the minority rights. The minorities in this case were the Europeans, Asians and some indigenous communities.
- g) Independent Electoral commission was set up consisting of the speakers of the two houses and a nominee of the Prime Minister. Also it comprised nominees representing the regions. This was to ensure impartiality and honesty in elections.
- h) The constitution provided for an independent and impartial judiciary to ensure justice and prevent corruption. Judges were accorded security of tenure which was extended to the Attorney General, the government’s principal legal advisor.
- i) It provided for public service commission. The aim was insulate the civil service recruitment and promotions from abuse and corruption.
- j) An independent land board.
​Post –colonial Era (1963-2010).
- Like many former British colonies, Kenya started off with a west Minister system of government.
- The first Constitutional amendment in independent Kenya was in 1964. Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The senate and regions were also abolished. A Constitutional review in June 1982 officially transformed Kenya into a one-party state.
- A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system.
- The period after 1992 was influenced by Global issues like the decline of the cold war, collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 and the intensified struggle for democracy all over the world.
- In 1997, the Inter Party Parliamentary Group (IPPG) was formed with membership from the Opposition and KANU mps. The aim was to come up with minimal constitutional reforms to level the ground before the 1997 general elections
- a) The KBC shall observe fairness in providing balanced all-inclusive political views in the news coverage.
- b) Membership of the Electoral Commission to be reviewed to accommodate the interest of the opposition.
- c) Registration of Parties would be done without unnecessary delay.
- d) The powers of the chiefs that would likely interfere with political activity at local level be contained.
- e) The police Act be amended to provide for politically impartial police force
- f) To repeal a number of laws restricting civil and political rights, ad abolition of the offence of sedition
Steps towards realization of a new constitution in Kenya from 2008.
- a) On 28 February 2008 The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga .Agenda No 4 of this arrangement was a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya The main provisions of the National Accord were:
- Establishment of a grand coalition government with two parties; PNU and ODM sharing power.
- Raila Odinga was to become Kenya’s second Prime minister after the position was created in the accord arrangement
- Two deputy Prime Minister Positions would be filled by the PNU and ODM parties respectively.
- Provision for An expanded cabinet with the two parties being accorded slots as per their proportion in the house.
- Two deputy Prime Minister Positions would be filled by the PNU and ODM parties respectively.
- Raila Odinga was to become Kenya’s second Prime minister after the position was created in the accord arrangement
- Establishment of a grand coalition government with two parties; PNU and ODM sharing power.
- b) In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process.
- c) The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein, Mr Bobby Mkangi, Professor Christina Murray (South Africa), Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda).
- d) 23 February 2009 Members of the CoE were appointed by the President were later on sworn in,
- e) On 17 November 2009 CoE released the draft to the public and invited views and comments on the draft constitution,
- f) By 23rd February 2010. CoE had submitted the final draft of constitution to the Parliamentary Select Committee.
- g) On 4th august 2010 Kenya held a Constitutional Referendum where the new constitution was overwhelmingly endorsed.
- h) On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitutions.
Stages in the constitution making process in Kenya since independence.
- 1) Debate over contentious issues. Issues like the entrenchment of section 2A in the independence constitution in 1981 raised concerns among various stake holders and groups. The issue of whether to include the position of Prime Minister or not has also been debated for many years.
- 2) Collection of public views. The Saitoti commission (the Constitution review commission established by Moi in 1990) had the objective of collecting views of Kenyans concerning how KANU was to operate in the best way possible. In June 2001, the CKRC, chaired by Yash Pal Ghai was mandated to collect views as part of the constitution review process.
- 3) Civic education. in 2001, the Ghai Commission was mandated and funded to provide civic education .
- 4) Convening of constitutional conferences. For example, The 2002 National Constitution Conference at Bomas of Kenya and other similar conferences.
- 5) Drafting of the constitution. This involved both local and international experts who drafted the constitution between 2000 and 2010. This was mainly the work of the Ghai led CKRC and the Committee of experts led by Nzamba Gitonga.
- 6) The referendum. During the 2005 referendum, the Wako Draft constitution was rejected. In August 2010, another referendum was held and the 2010 proposed New Constitution was approved.
- 7) Promulgation of the constitution. On 27th of August 2010, President Mwai Kibaki presided over the promulgation of the new constitution of Kenya.
Constitutional Changes in Kenya since independence upto 2010.
- The 1963 independence constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion. It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Queen of England from the majority party in Parliament. The Queen of England remained Head of State as represented by the Governor General who was also the Commander-in-Chief
- By the 1st amendment Act 28 of 1964, published in November 1964, Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The amendment outlined the criteria to be met by a presidential candidate. It made provision of a Vice President who would be appointed by the president from among the members of parliament. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga became the first occupant of that office.
- By The 2nd amendment Act 38 of 1964 published on 17th December 1964, the senate and regions were also abolished.
- 3rd amendment Act 14 of 1965, published on 8th June 1965, altered parliamentary Majority required for approval of a state of emergency to only a simple majority from the previous 65%. The term ‘region’ was replaced with ‘province.’ The amendment altered the title of Supreme Court.
- By the 4th amendment Act 16 of 1966, published on 12th April 1966, commonwealth citizens became eligible for Kenyan citizenship. Also any legislator jailed for six months or more or missed to attend eight consecutive parliamentary seatings without the speaker’s permission had to forfeit his/her parliamentary seat.
- On 28th April 1966, an amendment was passed, published on 30th April, to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election. This amendment targeted Kenya People’s Union (KPU) of Jaramogi Odinga that had been formed that year. The amendment was published, tabled, debated, passed and received presidential assent within 48 hours. (it was nicknamed ‘the KPU amendment’).
- In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed, published on 7th June 1966, empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security. The president also acquired power to control freedom of the press.
- In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate. The Act was published on 4th January 1967. The voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two-thirds of the MPs.
- In 1968, by the 9th amendment, published on 12th April 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries. The act abolished the provincial councils and all representatives to the provincial and district boundaries. This marked the end of regionalism.
- In 1968, by the 10th amendment, Act 45 published on 12th July 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his death was laid down. Also, that all candidates for a general election should be nominated by a political party. The act also gave the president power to nominate 13 MPs to replace the 12 specially elected members of the House of Representatives.
- In 1974, the age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years. The minimum voting age was altered from 21 to 18 years.
- In 1975, an amendment of the constitution empowered the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei who been found guilty of an election offence. It was named ‘the Ngei Amendment’. The bill went through all the stages in one afternoon and received presidential assent the following day.
- In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembly.
- In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community.
- The 18th amendment Act passed in 1979 was the first one under president Moi. It provided that public officers had to resign six months in advance in order to qualify as candidates for parliamentary elections.
- In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assembly.
- By The 19th amendment Act of 1981 published in 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya. The infamous section 2A was introduced in the constitution. (Kenya had been a de facto one party state between 1969 and 1982). The post of Chief Secretary was created to head the public service. The first occupant being Jeremiah Kiereini.
- By the 1985 20th amendment Act, the High Court began acting as a Court of Appeal.
- The 21st amendment Act passed in 1985 repealed Section 89 of the constitution which provided for the acquisition of Citizenship for anyone born in Kenya after December 11th 1963.
- In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and Auditor–General was removed. The president could now dismiss them at will. Office of chief secretary was abolished.
- In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed. The removal of security of tenure of the above officers sparked a lot of condemnation from LSK and main stream churches.
- In 1988, an amendment was passé that provided the police with powers to hold a suspect in custody for upto fourteen days before taking him/ her to court if the crime constituted a capital offence. This is what led to detaining of persons suspected of opposing the government in the dingy basement of Nyayo House where some were tortured to death.
- 1990- Security of tenure of the offices of AG and Controller and Auditor –General was reinstated.
- A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions (section 2A) of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December.
- In 1991, an amendment that was passed limited the tenure of the president to a maximum of two-five year terms.
- After 1997 elections, Parliament, on the initiative of the government, passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms.
- A constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a draft constitution.
- In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC) headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai into the independence constitution.
- In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako Draft
- The draft constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders.
- The rejection of the draft constitution by Kenyans in the referendum of 2005 meant that the 1963 constitution (as amended) remained the basic law of Kenya. .
- 28 February 2008The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga to end violence that erupted after the December 2007 presidential elections. Agenda No 4 of this arrangement calls for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya
- In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray (South Africa) Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda.
- On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution.
Key changes in the New Constitution.
- a) Reduction of president’s executive powers.
- b) Devolution of power to regions (creation of county and national governments.)
- c) Creation of the senate and national assembly to constitute parliament.
- d) On Citizenship, Birth and registration are the only recognize ways of attaining Kenyan citizenship. Dual citizenship is now recognized by the constitution.
- e) Recognition of the Kadhi’s courts as subordinate courts in the judicial court system.
- f) Expansion of the citizens’ Bill of Rights to guarantee equal representation for either gender in all governance structures.
FEATURES OF THE NEW CONSTITUTION.
- Why there was need to have a new constitution in Kenya.
- The need to meet the changing needs of the Kenyan society, e.g. due to population growth.
- The rise of gender sensitivity in Kenya/The need to address the rights of women which had not been adequately addressed in the outgoing constitution.
- The constant misuse of executive authority by the Moi and Kenyatta regime/ the need to give less or more power to the executive.
- The need to depart from the colonial policies that found their way into the outgoing constitution.
- The need to safeguard against social vices like corruption and land grabbing.
- The need to enhance unity and realize a liberal society due to political maturity.
Problems that Kenya faced in realization of a new constitutional dispensation.
- Party differences have been transferred to the constitution making process e.g. the NARC fallout, the ODM wrangles between Raila and Ruto. Etc.
- Sectarian interests based on tribe, religion, age, sex which is hard to satisfy. E.g in relation to creation of counties, Kadhis court and land laws.
- Attempts to project personality, individual or group interests rather than national interest into the process.
- Direct misinformation of the public and propaganda by politicians and other groups with selfish interests.
- Illiteracy and ignorance of the electorate and therefore easily misled.
- Tension and sometimes violence marred the whole review process.
- Limited financial resources and personnel
- Lack of unity of purpose and co-operation among existing political parties hence difficulty in hammering out compromise..
- Inadequate civic education/wrong civic education.
- Lack of consultation with all the interested stake holders.
- An attempt to tie the constitutional review process with election time-table, political programmes and interests.
Why Kenya’s new constitution is regarded as supreme.
- The Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and binds all persons and all State organs at both levels of government.
- No person may claim or exercise State authority except as authorized under the Constitution.
- The validity or legality of the Constitution is not subject to challenge by or before any court or other State organ.
- Any law, including customary law that is inconsistent with the Constitution is void to the extent of the inconsistency, and any act or omission in contravention of the Constitution is invalid.
- The general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya.
- Any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under this Constitution.
Functions of the Kenyan constitution.
- It is the fundamental law of Kenya.
- It has helped in establishing the philosophy, character and structure of the Kenyan government.
- It has laid down principles which determine government power and duties.
- It r regulates, distributes and limits the functions of different institutions of the state.
- It spells out the basis of relationship between the Kenyans and the government and what rights should be in that relationship.
Role played by the Kenyan constitution in governing the country.
- It protects the interests of the weak in the society from those who would want to dominate them.
- It checks the powers of the dictatorial rulers.
- It defines how to rise to power hence preventing unnecessary power struggles.
- It provides for the separation of powers between the three arms of government.
- It defines the powers of those in authority hence preventing misuse of power.
- It defines relations with other countries
- It specifies on how a government is to be formed.
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​Early Urbanization.
Factors that influenced development of urban centres in Africa.
- Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe located at an intersection of transport routes.
- Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of towns e.g. Cairo.
- Industrial development –areas of industries grew up as towns since they attracted laborers e.g. Cairo.
- Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes.
- Strategic location which ensured security and thus ample growth e.g. Kilwa.
- Growth of religion –some grew rapidly because they were religious centres.
- Mining –led to development of towns’ e.g. Meroe, Johannesburg.
This is the capital city of Egypt. The city was founded in 969 AD when the conquerors from Tunisia, ‘The Fatimid Dynasty’ invaded and conquered Egypt
Factors for the growth of Cairo.
- The Nile River provided water for domestic use and was also a means of transport. This enabled Cairo to grow.
- Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of Cairo.
- Industrial development –various industries developed in Cairo. Food processing industries and construction works. The industries attracted migrants from rural areas.
- Fertile Nile Valley. the Valley had adequate rainfall and the river always carried silt which it deposited downstream to provide
- The Suez Canal which was opened in 1869 opened a new trade route which encouraged the arrival of thousands of Europeans. Commercial, administrative and public buildings were constructed during this time.
- Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes. The Strategic location along the Nile attracted caravans which would pass through Cairo from North, west and Central Africa
- The opening of the Aswan High Dam in 1902 enhanced food production through irrigation thus influencing Cairo’s growth.
- The effects of the two world wars which disrupted Egypt’s trade with other countries thus compelling her to find ways of substituting imports. This boosted industrialization
- Cairo is a cultural centre being home to treasures preserved from the early Egyptian civilization and Islamic culture in their museums. ‘The city of a thousand Minarets’.
- Cairo also grew as a centre of education and medicine. Several institutions of higher learning such as the University of Cairo, American University and Azar University contributed to this.
Functions of Cairo.
- It was a national capital and a political centre of the Arab world.
- It serves as the transport and commercial centre of North Africa and the Middle East.
- It is a recreational centre housing many recreational facilities like stadiums and entertainment halls
- Cairo has been a historical centre being the house to the Egyptian civilization for over 5000 years
- Cairo serves as an industrial centre. Many of these developed during the industrialization process. For example, textile, vehicle and communication equipment assembly plants.
Cairo faces the following problems today;
- High population. Cairo is the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. One fifth of Egypt’s population stays in Cairo. In 1988, her population was 11 million.
- Scarcity of food. The high population in the city has caused food shortage.
- Unemployment. The number of unemployed people in Cairo is increasing every year mainly due to the high rate of migration to the city and the natural population increase.
- Housing problems. Between the Nile and the main airport, between 250,000 to 900,000 poor people have put up shanties. This area is commonly reffered to as the ‘city of Death’.
- Traffic jams.
- Pollution from the industries, vehicle exhaust, desert storms and garbage burning.
- High crime rate. This is mostly due to the high unemployment level
Solutions to the problems facing Cairo.
- The food shortage problem is being tackled through reclaiming land for agriculture. The Aswan high Dam provides water for irrigation.
- The housing problem is being addressed by constructing industries in the suburbs to reduce the population in the city.
- Traffic jams have been eased through the launching of the Cairo Metro in 1987, which was Africa’s first subway system, which serves the Ramses station to the north and Helwan area to the south. It conveys 60,000 passengers per hour.
Meroe/Merowe.
Factors for growth of Meroe.
- Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe was located at an intersection of transport routes (from east via the red sea and from north via Egypt). This promoted trade with other parts of the world.
- Abundance of wood fuel, from the heavily forested Blue Nile / white Nile intersection area, which was a key to the prosperity of the iron-working industry.
- Mining –Merowe was located in a region endowed with a lot of iron.
Social effects of the growth of Merowe.
- The Merotic language developed to replace the Egyptian language previously used by the Nubian founders of Merowe.
- New architectural developments took place in the region. These were characterized by tombs where rulers were buried after death, ruins of temples, palaces and homes.
- Other industries developed besides the iron working industry. For example, weaving of cotton, cloth and pottery
Functions of Meroe during the colonial period.
- Meroe was a centre of iron working hence an early industrial centre.
- A mining centre since Meroe had iron ore, which it mined.
- A religious function since it had many temples where people worshipped their gods. The priests who headed the Meroe church had their headquarters in Meroe.
- It was a centre of trade.
- It was an administrative and political centre.
- Transport centre-major trade routes converged and radiated from Meroe.
Factors that led to decline of Merowe.
- The rise of Axum kingdom of Ethiopia which denied her access to the red sea.
- The increasing desertification of the region, perhaps due to the rapid deforestation. The city began declining in 350 BC.
Kilwa.
- The town is among the city states that developed along the east African coast. Her greatness was due to the Persian influence. One of its Shirazi rulers from Banadir Coast in Persia, Ali Ibn Hassan, transformed the town into a large city.
- The sultan erected a stone citadel to protect the island from external enemies. He also forced other conquered city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa.
- Later on Sultan al-Hassan Ibn Sulaiman I built the Great mosque of Kilwa in 1270 AD and a luxurious palace referred to by historians as Husuni Kubwa.
Factors influencing the growth of Kilwa.
- Exemplary leadership provided by the Shirazi Leaders who kept enemies off and forced the neighbouring city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa.
- The strategic location of Kilwa enabled her to attract merchants as it was a convenient stopping place.
- Monopoly of the sofala Gold Trade. The control of the Sofala Gold trade had fallen in the hands of Kilwa by 1300 AD
- The gleaming buildings of Kilwa such as the great Mosque and palace made her the Jewel of the Zenj Coast, minting her own coins to add to her prosperity.. the mosque became a tourist attraction later own
Functions of Kilwa.
- It was a major trading centre flourishing mainly due to the gold trade.
- It was a major defence centre since it was heavily fortified against external aggression by a stone citadel.
- It was a religious centre. Mosques for Islamic worship were located at Kilwa e.g the great mosque.
- It was an administrative centre which housed palaces for the rulers and other rich people. However 14th C AD, Kilwa’s prosperity began to decline due to the following reasons.
​Factors that led to the decline of Kilwa.
- Disruption of the Gold trade/ civil wars among communities.
- Dynastic rivalries/ family feuds.
- Series of rebellions among some of the towns.
- Conquest by the Portuguese who even burnt the towns.
Factors that led to the collapse of early urban centres in pre-colonial Africa
- Collapse of state system and kingdoms for example Kush collapse and the coastal city states.
- Collapse of trade and their economic systems e.g. the trans-Saharan trade and long distance trade.
- Collapse of Arab influence I east Africa and east Africa.
- Impact of Portuguese conquest leading to destruction of towns like manda and decline of others.
- Introduction of new types of trade e.g. legitimate trade which replaced slave trade.
- European colonization brought in a new social political and economic order.
- Exhaustion of mineral resources e.g. gold as in case of sofala and Kilwa as well as Meroe. Some minerals lost value.
- Changes in transport routes as new roads by-passed some towns thus diverting trade to other centres e.g. Timbuktu
- As a result of stiff competition, some towns dwindled as others expanded.
Early urban centres in Europe
- This is one of the early states in ancient Greece that flourished after the Persian wars of between 490-480 BC.
- Athens developed from a farming settlement situated in a defensive site. It had many beautiful buildings such as the Parthenon (a large temple built between 460 and 430 BC in honour of Athena, the goddess of Athens). The acropolis was the highest part of the town.
- Athens had narrow streets and some of its houses were made of unbaked bricks or mud and thatched roofs.
- There were frequent outbreaks of diseases due to poor sanitation.
- The concept of democracy first developed in Athens. At the centre of the city was a market, Agora, which was used as an assembly hall for debates.
- Athenians were divided into four classes.
- a) First class –the richest that were the most heavily taxed.
- b) Second class- provided the cavalry for the army.
- c) Third class- provided the soldiers for the infantry.
- d) The fourth class- the poorest and who paid no taxes.
- Athens began to decline due to the Peloponnesian wars (431-404 BC). It was finally crushed in 338 BC by Phillip of Macedonia.
- Currently Athens is the capital of Greece with a population of 4 million.
Factors that led to growth of Athens.
- Trade and commerce. Their soils of the surrounding areas were infertile and, therefore could not support agriculture. The Athenians therefore resorted to trade to obtain foods in exchange for wine, wool and olive oil.
- Security. Athens was located in an easily defensible place. The town was surrounded by water, valleys and highlands making it difficult for an external enemy to attack.
- Religious activities. The area was a worship centre. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town.
- Accessibility and communication network. The port of Athens was located about six kilometres from the city thus making Athens a transport centre.
- Availability of water.
Functions of Athens.
- It was a cultural centre. The Greeks loved to watch play. In Athens, there was the great theatre of Epidaurus.
- An educational centre. In Athens, every person was taught how to read and write. Athens became a centre of scholarly work producing great thinkers like Socrates, Plato, Pythagoras, Archimedes and Aristotle.
- Athens was a sports centre. There were Gymnasiums where boys were taught games which were developed into what came to be known as Olympics.
- Religious centre. The Parthenon temple was a great manifestation of this function. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town.
London.
- The capital city of England, it is situated on the estuary of the river Thames. Its name is derived from the name Llyn Dun which means ‘Celtic Lake Fort’. The town developed during the Roman rule in Britain in A.D 43.
- By 314 AD London had become an early centre of Christianity.
- In 1381, the city was adversely affected by a serious peasant, revolt that led to massive destruction of property.
- By 18th c, London had emerged as an elegant city though however also with numerous urban related problems. In 1890, it hosted the world’s first electric train.
Factors influencing growth of London.
- Trade-money obtained from trading was used to build the city.
- Industrialization-industry such as textile, ship building, metal works, etc led to the growth of London.
- Improved transport –London is well served by a network of railway and roads. This facilitated the movement of goods and people.
- Shipping activities-there are many harbours in London enabling expanded loading and unloading activities
- Population growth.
- London was the seat of government for a very long time.
Functions of London.
- It was a transport and communication centre. The city was inter-connected with roads which served various parts of Britain. The city houses the main international airports on UK. E.g Heathrow- the busiest airport in the world.
- It is a political and administrative capital with offices for the Prime Minister and cabinet. The Monarchical offices are also located here.
- It is a commercial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders.
- An industrial centre. London was an early centre of the textile industry. There are light service industries in the city.
- It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the oxford university, the University of London, founded in 1836, etc.
- London is a historical centre. The city has theatres for the performance of cultural activities and museums which display artefacts of Historical importance.
Problems of London.
- Like many large cities worldwide, London has its share of problems:
- overcrowding,
- Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. In 1988, for example, nearly 1 in 8 people were unemployed throughout London and the situation in the inner city was worst
- Poor housing and homelessness. This has led to development of slums.
- Transportation is another problem. However, an excellent public system has helped to alleviate this.
- Air pollution continues to be a major challenge.
- Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
- Poverty. This was a greater problem in London in the initial stages.
Modern cities in Africa.
Nairobi developed as a depot and camp for the railway workers during the construction of the kenya-Uganda railway
Factors influencing the growth of Nairobi
- Excellent location in an area almost midway between Mombasa and Lake Victoria.
- There was adequate supply of water.
- The land was suitable for construction of workshops as it was flat.
- The climate was suitable for Europeans. Cool temperatures at an altitude of 1700m.
- It was surrounded by a fertile countryside producing adequate foods.
- Transfer of the seat of the colonial government in 1907.
Functions of Nairobi.
- It was a transport and communication centre. The city is inter-connected with roads which served various parts of the country. The city houses the main international airport- JKIA.
- It is an administrative capital with offices for the head of state, cabinet, parliament and department of defence.
- It is a regional headquarter of various international bodies like UN, ILO etc.
- It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders.
- An industrial centre. Nairobi’s industrial area hosts many key industries in Kenya and east Africa.
- It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Nairobi, kenya polytechnic and other key institutions
- It is a tourist centre. The town boasts of various tourist attractions such as the Nairobi National Park, National Museums etc.
Problems facing Nairobi
- Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
- Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population.
- Poor housing. The population growth in Nairobi to 3 million has not corresponded to the development of housing.
- Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities.
- Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding.
- Poor town planning has led to poor drainage, especially during heavy rains when a lot of flooding occurs
- Pollution continues to be a major challenge in Nairobi. The factories located in the city are a cause of air and noise pollution.
- Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion odf water reservoirs.
- The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high.
Solutions to these problems.
- New housing projects are being developed. For example the Mathare slums upgrading project.
- The education and other social services are being provided through a cost-sharing scheme between the government and the town dwellers.
- The government is addressing the transport/congestion problem through the upgrading of the Thika superhighway to an eight lane highway; the Nairobi Syokimau Railway service was commissioned by president Kibaki I November 2012 to de-congest jogoo road. Etc.
- The government is encouraging the expansion of the informal sector as an alternative source of employment.
- The government is rehabilitating street families by taking them to schools to acquire relevant skills to make them useful to the nation.
- New water projects have been put in place. For example, the third Nairobi water Project from River Chania.
- The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS.
Johannesburg.
- The city started as a mining camp in 1886 after the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand. This attracted thousands of people coming to prospect for minerals and seek for employment.
- By the end of 19th c, the population of Johannesburg had risen to 166,000 people.
Factors which contributed to the growth of Johannesburg
- Existence of minerals/discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand which resulted in a rush of people to the area.
- Availability of energy i.e. coal which was an important source of energy to the mines, industries and homes.
- Excellent location in the veldt/plain making construction work easy.
- Its proximity to Vaal River which supplied plenty of water to industries and domestic use.
- Area around Johannesburg is fertile and therefore agriculturally productive ensuring steady supply of food.
- The organization of the city council which has ensured that financial control and revenue collection is effectively and the city able to manage its growth problems.
- Government policy of supporting industrial development. This has favored its growth.
Functions of Johannesburg.
- It was a transport and communication centre. The city has a highly developed network of transport lines since it served the mining industry. In June 2010, it became the first city in Africa to house an electric train service.
- An industrial centre. Its manufacturing functions include mining, metalwork, engineering, diamond cutting, jewellery manufacturing and food processing.
- It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders. It is also a major shopping centre in South Africa.
- It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Witwatersrand, teacher training colleges and other key institutions.
Problems facing Johannesburg.
- The problem of racial segregation. The black Africans who work around Johannesburg were often treated almost as slaves though they were the majority in the country.
- Poor housing. Most of the workers who work in and around Johannesburg live in shanties , mainly because of underpayment
- Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. Though the city is an industrial town, her industries have failed to provide sufficient employment for all people in the town.
- Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city.
- A large gap between the affluent class, especially the Europeans and the poor people who majorly are African
- Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding.
- The city has the highest crime rate in the world.
- Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities.
- Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion of water reservoirs.
- The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high.
​Solutions to the problems.
- The apartheid regime was ended in 1994 thus ending the problem of racial segregation.
- The new government of South Africa is trying to come up with better housing estates.
- Crime has been contained by creating more job opportunities.
- The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS
Impact of agrarian development on urbanization in Africa.
- The practice of agriculture forced people to adopt a sedentary lifestyle. Such settlement formed the basis of the earliest urban centres.
- Early agriculture led to specialization. The areas where the potters, iron smelters weavers and fishermen did their work grew up into urban centres
- From the agrarian revolution, there was adequate food for town dwellers.
On urbanization in Europe
- The revolution in Europe led to a landless society who moved to urban centres seeking employment. This promoted urban growth.
- Increased agricultural production ensured steady supply of raw materials to the new industries hence further growth of the industries.
- Agricultural expansion meant the big farmers had to borrow loans hence the expansion of banking facilities in towns leading to further growth.
- Agricultural produce entering and leaving countries had to be handled in ports hence towns near coasts grew.
Impacts of industrial revolution on urbanization in the world.
- The establishment of many factories drew many people to towns in search of employment the mining industry attracted many people to work in the mines. The mining camps soon grew up into towns.
- Industrial revolution stimulated innovations in transport and communication ensuring faster movement of people to further expansion of trading towns.
- The growth of industry has led to expansion of port towns to handle increased manufactured goods for export and raw material for factories e.g. growth of London, Budapest, Marseilles, Lagos and Cairo.
- The use of machines replaced human labour and caused layoffs. Those who lost their jabs sometimes became a security risk hence an increase in crime.
- The many inefficient factories that came up after the revolution have caused massive air and water pollution.
- Rural urban migration has exerted pressure on the limited resources and services the towns can offer.
​Consequences of urbanization on European communities during the 19th c.
- Rural –urban migration by Africans looking for better opportunities led to increased crime levels and insecurity for the Europeans.
- Air pollution which also affected them.
- Creation of employment for the Europeans in the developing industries.
- Creation of markets for agricultural produce due to increased urban population.
- Europeans were deprived of cheap African labour as most of them moved to urban areas.
KCSE History paper 1 and 2 with marking schemes now available
Categories
All
Agrarian Revolution
Chapter-10-development-of-transport-and-communication
Chapter-12-urbanisation
Chapter 13 Social
Chapter-14-constitutions-and-constitution-making
Chapter 15: Democracy And Human Rights
Chapter 16: European Invasion And The Process Of Colonization Of Africa
CHAPTER 17: ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA.
CHAPTER 18: COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
CHAPTER 20: Political Developments And Struggle For Independence In Kenya (1919-1963)
CHAPTER 21: Rise Of African Nationalism
CHAPTER 22: EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA
CHAPTER 23: The Formation
CHAPTER 24: WORLD WARS
Chapter 25: International Relations
Chapter 26: Co-Operation In Africa
Chapter 27: National Philosophies (Kenya)
Chapter 28: Social
Chapter 32: The Electoral Process And Functions Of Governments In Other Parts Of The World
Chapter-7-citizenship
Chapter-8-national-integration
Christian-missionaries-in-east-africa
Constitutions-and-constitution-making
Contacts Between East Africa And The Outside World Up To The 19th Century
Course-of-the-cold-war
Development-and-organization-of-long-distance-trade
Development-and-organization-of-long-distance-trade-during-precolonial-period-in-east-africa
Development Of Industry
Dev. Of Early Agriculture
EARLY MAN
Economic And Political Developments And Challenges In Africa Since Independence
ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN KENYA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Economic-and-political-organization-of-african-societies-in-the-19th-century
European Invasion Of Africa
FORM 1
FORM 2
Form 3 Level
FORM 4
Formation-of-government
HISTORY FORM 1 TOPICS
LEGISLATURE.
LIVES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF KENYAN LEADERS
Local Authorities In Kenya
MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY IN KENYA SINCE 1991
ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU)
Period-in-kenya
PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN KENYA
SOCIAL
Structure And Functions Of The Government Of Kenya
THE AFRICAN UNION
THE COMMON MARKETS FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA
THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
THE EXECUTIVE
THE JUDICIARY.
THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT
THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESSES (1900-1945)
THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UP TO THE 19TH CENTURY
THE SECOND WORLD WAR
TRADE
WORLD WAR 1 CONTINUED....