​In their administration of Kenya, the British employed both central government and local government as the basic administrative framework.
Central Government. 
The protectorate was divided into provinces headed by Provincial commissioners, who acted as representatives of the Governor. The governor was answerable to the colonial secretary in Britain.
Hierarchy of colonial administration in Kenya.

1. Colonial secretary. Based in London, he was the political head of the British colonial administration and overall coordinator of the colonial policies as passed by the British parliament.
2. Governor. Reporting to the colonial secretary, he was the representative of the British government in the Kenyan colony. He headed the executive council which affected colonial policies and programmes he gave assent to laws from the LEGCO before they were implemented.
3. Provincial Commissioners. They represented the governor at provincial level and implemented the policies and laws that were enacted by the legislative council that was established in 1907. They supervised the work of DCs, Dos and the entire provincial administration on behalf of the governor.
4. District commissioners. They implemented policies and maintained law and order and security in their districts. They headed the District Advisory Committees. They coordinated the work of Dos and Chiefs.
5. District Officers. They implemented orders from the DCs and coordinated the work of the chiefs. They maintained law and order in their divisions.
6. Chiefs. They acted as a link between the people and the Governor at local levels. They maintained law and order at the locations and coordinated the work of headmen.
7. Headmen. They were a link between the government and the people at the grassroots level. They mobilized people for development within their villages.

NB. The principal function of Chiefs and Headmen under the Headman’s Ordinance and Chiefs Authority Act was tax Collection and labour recruitment for public works and European settlers. Their duties were confined in the African reserves. The advisory and Executive Councils guided the governor and effected the colonial policies.

​Local Government.

1. The British introduced the Local Government in colonial Kenya because; 
2. They wanted to involve the local communities in administration of the region. This would reduce the costs of administration.
3. They wanted to mobilize local people in resources exploitation in order to stir up development
4. Local Government was a means of providing a legal forum for the local people to make decisions about their day to day affairs
5. The Local Government would provide an important link between the Central government and the locals.
6. The Local Government would provide a means through which the government would understand Africans better.
7. It also originated from the desire by European settlers to safeguard a number of privileges for themselves by getting directly involved in local administrative units

Local Native Councils.
They were established in 1922 after the passing of the Native Authority Ordinance.
In 1924, the District Advisory Councils (DACs) were renamed Local Native Councils (LNCs) 
Objectives of the LNCs.

1. To encourage and develop a sense of responsibility and duty among the Africans.
2. To provide a mechanism through which educated Africans could articulate their grievances at District level.
3. To ensure proper restriction of the Africans in their reserves.
4. To provide a means through which the government would understand the Africans better so that to contain them. 

Achievements of the Local Native councils.

1. The council's succeeded in restriction African political Agitations and other activities to their reserves.
2. The LNCs provided basic social needs like water, cattle Dips, Public Health, Education and Markets.
3. They succeeded in maintaining basic infrastructure in their areas of jurisdiction.
4. They succeeded in collecting taxes to finance their operations.

NB; in 1948, the LNCs were renamed African Native Councils. Pascal Nabwane became the first African chairmen of the ADCs in 1958. The ADCs operated as local authorities for Africans until 1963.
Impact of Local government.

1. It exploited local resources and initiated development.
2. It created a link between the central government and the local people.
3. It helped maintain law and order using the small police force set up in 1896.
4. It promoted infrastructural development and general welfare of Africans. It used the levied taxes to improve social services such as schools and hospitals.
5. It helped in the arbitration of African disputes through the District African Courts. E.g, Land disputes were settled by the LNCs.

Factors that undermined the local Government. 

1. Shortage of trained personnel to work in the LNCs and ADCs.
2. Poor transport and communication leading to poor coordination of their activities.
3. Lack of adequate revenue to finance their operations as the colony lacked strategic mineral resources.
4. There was a lot of rivalry between the settlers and the locals, later becoming the freedom struggles. This hampered the operations of the councils.
5. Racial discrimination was so pronounced that basic services were absent in African areas. Many Africans survived through self-help schemes.

The methods mainly used by the British to administer their colonies were

1. Direct rule.
2. Indirect rule. 

Difference between direct rule and indirect rule. 

• Indirect rule was a system under which the British recognized the existing African political system and used it to rule over the colonies.
• Direct rule was a system where the Europeans/the British entrenched themselves in the direct administration of their colonies. Indigenous political and administrative institutions and leaders are replaced with European systems. 

Indirect rule 
This was a policy advanced by Fredrick Lugard, the British High Commissioner in the protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1900 to 1906. To Lugard, as summed up in his book, The Dual Mandate in the Tropical Africa (1922),”the resident acts as a sympathetic adviser to the native chief, on matters of general policy. But the native ruler issues his instructions to the subordinate chiefs and district heads, not as orders of the resident but as his own”. Such a system was applied in Kenya and in West Africa.
Why Britain used indirect rule in Kenya and Nigeria. 

1. Britain lacked enough manpower to handle all the administrative responsibilities in the colonies. For example, in the Nigerian protectorate, there were only 42 British officials by 1900.
2. Lack of adequate funds for colonial administration from the parent government made her use the existing traditional political system as a means of cutting down the administrative costs.
3. The use of indirect rule was a means of diffusing the expected stiff resistance from the Africans. The traditional rulers were to be made to feel that they had lost no power.
4. The policy of administration had succeeded in India and Uganda, thus motivating them to apply it in Kenya and Nigeria.

​In Kenya, the British lacked both funds and experienced personnel to facilitate their administration. Kenya also did not have a reference model of an administrative system –like that in Buganda Kingdom. It was only among the Wanga section of the Abaluhyia and the Maasai where traditional chiefs that were recognized by the British existed. 
Where the institution of chieftainship did not exist as the case of the Agikuyu, the British appointed chiefs (men with ability to communicate in Kiswahili and organize porters) like Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu in Kiambu, Karuri wa Gakure in Murang’a and Wang’ombe wa Ihura in Nyeri. 
The passing of the Village Headman Act in 1902 gave the chiefs the responsibilities of maintaining public order, hearing of petty cases and clearing of roads and footpaths. 
The 1912 0rdinance increased the powers of the chiefs and their assistants (headmen); they were now allowed to employ other persons to assist them, such as messengers and retainers. They were to assist the District officers in Tax collection and control brewing of illegal liquor and cultivation of poisonous plants like Cannabis sativa. They were to control carrying of weapons and mobilize African labour for public works. 
The selected colonial chiefs however faced two problems; 

1. Most of them lacked legitimacy and were therefore rejected not only by the African elders who regarded them as nonentities, but also by the young generation who saw them as tools of colonial oppression and exploitation.
2. Many of the colonial chiefs were young and inexperienced.
3. Many of the chiefs also became unpopular since they used their positions to amass riches in terms of large tracts of land, livestock and wives. E.g Chief Musau wa Mwanza and Nthiwa wa Tama acquired 8000 herds of cattle and 15 wives respectively in kambaland.

The structure of administration was as discussed earlier with governor being answerable to the colonial secretary in London. Below him were provincial commissioners, district commissioners, district Officers and Chiefs. All the administrative positions above that of the chief were occupied by European personnel.

​Nigeria comprised the Lagos colony and protectorate, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate. These regions were later amalgamated into the Nigerian protectorate in 1914. 
In Northern Nigeria, Fredrick Lugard employed indirect rule.
Reasons for the use of indirect rule by the British in northern Nigeria.

1. The system was cost-effective. There was need to reduce the administrative cost by using the local chiefs in administration while employing very few British officials.
2. Northern Nigeria had communities with a well-organized centralized system of government complete with Islamic sharia whose use provided a base to govern the protectorate. i.e. The Sokoto Caliphate
3. The vastness of the region coupled with the inadequate British administrative work force and Poor transport and communication network made it difficult for the British officials to effectively administer some parts of the region.
4. The system would help dilute African resistances since governance was by local rulers. The British were keen on guarding against the local resistance to their administration.
5. The method ensured smooth transition from African to British dominion. It was a way of deliberately preparing Africans for self-government.
6. Indirect rule had been tried successfully in Uganda and India. 

Indirect administration as applied in northern Nigeria. 

• In Northern Nigeria, the existing emirates with centralized system of administration formed the basis of local governance. The Emirs were retained and were to rule under supervision of the British resident officials. 
• The British administration was based on the local customs and laws. Chiefs chosen by the British were to be acceptable by the local people. Local chiefs collected taxes and a portion of it was given to the Central Government. 
• Local Native Courts operated as per the laws of the land. The Emirs were allowed to try cases in their own Muslim courts. 
• The Emirs were mandated to maintain law and order. They possessed firearms. 
• In 1914, Northern and Southern Nigeria were Brought under one syatem of administration . However Lugard found it hard to apply indirect rule in Southern Nigeria.

Why indirect rule was not successful applied in southern Nigeria. 

• a) Southern Nigeria lacked a centralized indigenous system of administration, which would have been vital in the application of indirect rule. 
• b) The south had many ethnic groups, many languages and many disparities in customs, which denied it the homogeneity necessary for the application of indirect rule. 
• c) The southern people were infuriated by the British introduction of new concepts like forced labour and direct taxes. 
• d) The British did not give themselves time to understand the operation of the social, political and economic systems of the people of southern Nigeria.
• e) The educated elites in the south felt left out of the administration of their own country in favour of the illiterate appointees of the British. 
• f) There existed communication barrier between the British supervisors, the warrant chiefs and the people, which sometimes led to misinterpretation and misunderstanding. 
• g) The warrant chiefs sometimes misused their powers in tax collection and molesting women sexually. 
• h) The british had used excessive force in dealing with any form of resistance and this made them unpopular

Problems associated with indirect rule as a system of government. 

1. Indirect rule could only e applied where centralized government was present. Its application in stateless societies often faced difficulties.
2. Where chiefs were imposed, especially in the stateless societies, their authority lacked legitimacy and only resulted in suspicion and lack of confidence. This would lead to constant riots when they tried to exert their authority.
3. Local people even in the highly centralized states looked at indirect rule as curtailing the authority of their local rulers and hence resented it. E.g the Yoruba state in Nigeria.
4. Some inexperienced British officials tended to interfere too much with the vital African customs and practices e.g. among the Asante thus bringing further problems.
5. Different administrations had different views on the degree of indirect rule to be applied hence confusion was created. It was difficult to draw a boundary between the advisory and supervisory roles of colonial powers.
6. Language was a problem and there was need for interpreters. Communication was poor and made adaptation difficult.
7. Education of chiefs was necessary but even this took a long time and needed patience and skillful knowledge which the British did not have. 

Effects of indirect rule. 

1. The system led to transformation of the role of traditional African chiefs. they now began to recruit fellow Africans to provide labour to the colonial government and even fight in world war I. the chiefs thus became unpopular.
2. The indigenous system of administration was modernized by the British especially in northern Nigeria.
3. Many African chiefs used their positions to accumulate a lot of wealth at the expense of their people. Chiefs like Wang’ombe and Gakure in central Kenya acquired large tracts of land.
4. Indirect rule created suspicion and mistrust between the educated elites and the traditional chiefs who were given power in southern Nigeria. The elite reacted by forming political movements thus leading to growth of nationalism in Nigeria.
5. Indirect rule helped preserve African cultures, unlike assimilation which sought to replace them.

DIRECT RULE. 
This system was mainly used in regions with large white settler population such as Algeria , south Nigeria and Zimbabwe.

​Zimbabwe was colonized by the British South African Company under John Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes used his resources to sponsor a group of South African Europeans who set out to establish in Southern Rhodesia, a satellite of South African System. They began off by engaging the Ndebele in a series of wars from 1893 before finally occupying the fertile land in Mashonaland and Matabeleland.
Characteristics of direct rule in Zimbabwe.

1. Zimbabwe had a large number of European settlers with their population rising to 50,000 by 1931. The whites therefore maintained an advantaged position throughout their administration of Zimbabwe.
2. Many of the British settlers developed the attitude and consequently the belief that the territory was preordained to be a white settler colony.
3. The territory was administered by a commercial company (B.S.A.C) for a long period ( 1890-1923)
4. An administrator below who was a long chain of European civil servants performing simple administrative duties headed BSAC.
5. Direct method of administration was applied to the Africans who had initially resisted the intrusion. New chiefs were appointed to dethrone the traditional leaders.
6. The Legislative Council that was begun in 1898 gave the European settlers political Rights to the extent that by 1923, they had attained some self-governance.
7. The system was characterized by massive alienation of African Land compelling Africans to provide labour to the new European settlers.
8. There was racial segregation which was effected through the Legislative Council. African communities suffered greatly in the hands of the settler regime. 

Reasons for use of direct rule by the British in Zimbabwe. 

1. The British desired to fully control the economy of Zimbabwe and maximize on profit generation through direct involvement in administration. 
2. The Shona and Ndebele resistance against British intrusion made them not to trust the Matabele chiefs nor use them as British agents
   
3. There was lack of reliable political system to be used in indirect administration of the region. The local political institutions based on the Induna system had been destroyed when the British conquered and occupied Zimbabwe.
4. Existence of enough B.S.A Co personnel on the spot who were familiar with the area as well as the British system of government.
5. Favourable climatic conditions and the expected rich mineral deposits attracted many settlers who later provided the necessary personnel.
6. There was a strong desire by the Europeans to be able to direct their own affairs and destiny without interference from within or without/The spirit nationalism 

The BSAC administrative structure in Southern Rhodesia (1905-1923) 
The government was headed by a resident Commissioner who was appointed by the Company stationed at Salisbury. Below him were various commissioners in charge of the Districts (all Europeans). Below them were African Chiefs whose duty included collecting tax, recruiting labour and maintaining law and order. In 1898, a LEGCO was established –heavily dominated by the European settlers. An Executive Council, consisting of the Resident Commissioner and 4 nominees of BSA.Co was also established. In 1902, a Native Affairs Department, headed by a European Native Commissioner was created thus entrenching the dominance of Europeans in Zimbabwe. The duty of the commissioner was to allocate land to Africans, collect taxes and recruit labour. 
For lack of enough valuable minerals in Zimbabwe as expected, the Europeans compensated by acquiring large tracts of land from African communities with some having grants of upto 3000 acre pieces of land.( Europeans occupied 21 million acres while Africans despite their majority were confined to 24 million acre reserves.)
The Company relinquished control in 1923 to for Zimbabwe to become a crown colony. 
Crown colony Rule (1923-1953)
Why the settlers favoured crown colony over merger with South Africa. 

1. The merger would have led to domination by Afrikaners in their political matters.
2. Their economic interests would have been neglected in favour of those of Afrikaners. As a crown colony, a Governor was appointed in 1923 to represent the Queen of England. British government was empowered by the constitution to veto any legislation that would discriminate against Africans. This however never happened practically. 

For example, the government formulated the Two-Pyramids Policy or parallel development policy characterized by discrimination against Africans. At the base of the pyramid was the majority Africans relegated to offering cheap labour for the white settlers. At the apex was the minority whites who took the highest positions in the economic and political system. 
To legitimize the two pyramids policy were two Acts that were passed in 1930 and 1934. a) Land Apportionment Act of 1930. 
The Act introduced rigid territorial segregation with land being divided into white’s and Africans’ portions. No African was allowed to acquire land outside their segregated portion. The minority whites acquired over half of the best arable land. Africans were given the semi arid areas infested by mosquitoes.
Land was categorized into four; 

1. Native Reserve Area. For Africans population. The Land was characterized with congestion since it was inadequate.
2. Native Purchase Area. For Africans to buy. Such areas had harsh climatic conditions.
3. European Area. For Whites only.
4. Unassigned Area. For government expansion of buildings and other uses. 

Effects of the Land Apportionment Act on Africans. 

1. Many Africans became migrant labourers, moving to mines, towns and European farms to provide cheap labour since their land was unproductive.
2. Large tracts of African land were alienated and they were confined to only 29 million acres while only 50,000 whites occupied 49 million acres of land.
3. This exposed Africans to problems like overgrazing that further deteriorated their land.
4. There was widespread poverty among Africans. For those on the reserves, they faced starvation, those in towns faced slum life.
5. Africans suffered racial segregation in provision of social services in urban areas.
6. There was disruption of social roles as African men moved to towns and settler farms. Women took over men’s jobs in the reserves.
7. Land apportionment became the seedbed for the rise of African nationalism in Zimbabwe.
8. Africans were exposed to over taxation to compel them to provide labour to the Europeans.

b) The Industrial Conciliation Act of 1934. 

• The prime objective of the Act was to protect white workers from African competition. The government through the act prohibited Africans from setting up a trade union. Africans from beyond southern Rhodesia were imported to provide labour to the whites at low wages. 
• The act resulted in relegation of Africans to the lowest level while skilled jobs were set aside for the Europeans. 
• The two acts resulted in the humiliating conditions for the Africans which resulted in the rise of African Nationalism that continued more after the Second World War. 
• As an answer to African agitation, the government invited more white settlers giving them more large tracts of land. The settlers also began to agitate for the formation of a federation of the three central African territories (southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland) 
• In 1953, the British government gave approval for the formation of the federation of central African countries.

​The Central African Federation.
The federation was organized as follows; 

• Each territory had its own government responsible for local administration. 
• Each territorial government was responsible for all aspects of native affairs within its boundaries.
• The British government was directly involved in the administration of the two northern protectorates.
• An African Board was established to ensure that no racist legislation against the Africans was passed in the federation parliament.
• The Federal Parliament was given powers to deal with all matters involving more than one territory and foreign affairs. 
• The first Prime Minister of the Federation, Garfield Todd, being sympathetic to African protests over formation of the federation, legalized the formation of trade Unions and funded African education and Agriculture. 
• Unfortunately when Todd was replaced in 1958, all his programmes were abandoned. In 1963, the federation was dissolved and shortly afterwards Malawi and Zambia became independent as southern Rhodesia remained a self-governing colony. 

The reign of Ian Smith.

• Ian Smith’s Rhodesian Front Party, controlled by the white extremists with no regards for Africans, won the 1962 elections.
• On 15th october 1965, Smith led the settlers to announce a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from Britain implying that political leadership was now fully in the hands of the white rebel settlers.
• This declaration provoked instant protest not only within Africa but also from the international community. UN declared sanctions against South Rhodesia though countries like South Africa and Portugal unfortunately continued to trade with her making the sanctions ineffective.

 
In 1970, UDI declared itself a republic under a new constitution that entrenched white's’ position in Zimbabwe by spelling the following;

1. Voting qualifications for Africans were revised and were now based on income. This automatically disenfranchised the majority of Africans.
2. The land tenure system was revised to enable the Europeans to purchase land from the government. 

Meanwhile the war of independence had began in 1966, provoked by the 1965 UDI declaration, with a patriotic front formed by Zimbabwe African National Union(ZANU) of Mugabe Robert and Zimbabwe African People’s Union(ZAPU) of Joshua Nkomo waging a guerilla warfare. Zimbabwe became independent in 1980, with Robert Mugabe as the fits Prime Minister.
Effects of British rule in Zimbabwe.

• It led to African land alienation by white settlers/ Africans were displaced from their ancestral lands.
• The establishment of white settlement subjected Africans to abject poverty and suffering. Africans were subjected to intense economic exploitation through taxation and forced labour.
• African traditional economy was undermined as many of the Africans were forced to work for the Europeans.
• African interests were ignored in the day-to-day running of the colony.
• African traditional rulers lost their autonomy and became mere puppets of British administration.
• African cultures were undermined, for example through the separation of families as people sought alternative livelihood.
• The white settlers were to enhance the production of cash crops as transport, trade and industry were developed.
• Africans were denied freedom of movement and confined I reserves.
• Positively, it led to development of transport network  the region.
• It led to introduction of new crops in the region
• It led to rise of nationalism as many Africans could no longer bear the burden of suffering in the hands of the whites.

Definition. 
        This was a system of administration in which French colonies were given a culture and civilization similar to that of France. This system was influenced by the French revolution of 1789, which emphasized the equality of all men. 
       In Africa, it was perfected by Lewis Faidherbe in Senegal when he was governor from 1854 to 1865. 
        To many historians Assimilation was a deliberate French policy to help them destroy African Chieftaincies and Kingdoms that were thriving at the time of their arrival. Under the system, Africans had to;

• Learn the French language.
• Practice the French legal system.
• Apply the French civil and political system.
• Convert to Christianity and learn French mannerism including eating and dressing habits. Later on assimilation evolved into association which had been first applied in Africa in central Africa by Savorgnan de Brazza. 

Association involved letting the subjects develop independently due to the belief that non-westerners were racially inferior and would therefore never be accepted as equal to Europeans even when assimilated. 
French administration in West Africa.
   The French system of administration was highly centralized. 
   The eight French colonies were grouped into the confederation of French West Africa. They were governed from one capital, Dakar, Senegal. 
   The federation was headed by a Governor-General answerable to the French Minister for colonies in Paris. Each colony was headed by a lieutenant- Governor answerable to the Governor-General in Dakar.
   Each colony was divided into cercles (provinces), each headed by a commandant de cercle. Each cercle was further divided into small districts each headed by a chef de sub-division below whom were African chiefs (chefs de cantons in charge of locations). At the base were chefs de village in charge of the sub-locations. 
   All the French overseas colonies were seen as overseas provinces and each elected a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies in Paris (lower House). However the French administrators appointed lacked high standards of education and some were military officers simply rewarded with senior administrative positions. This led to inefficiency.
French administration in Senegal. 
   In Senegal, the policy of assimilation was only applied in the four communes of St.Louis, Goree, Rufisque and Dakar. In the rest of the country, African chiefs who ruled were put I three grades namely;

• Chefs de province: - equivalent of the paramount chiefs, they were usually successors of the pre-colonial chiefs.
• Chefs de Canton: - these were ordinary people appointed by the French officials due to their ability, to be charge of locations. They kept register of taxpayers the location, helped the government in conscription of Africans into the army and assisted in mobilizing forced labour for road construction and other public works.
• Chefs de village:- these were usually traditional heads of the community(village) who were given the responsibility of collecting taxes, maintenance of law and order, organizing relief during floods and locust invasion and maintaining roads in their areas. 

The privileges which were enjoyed by assimilated Africans in the four communes of Senegal included;
Economic privileges

• They were exempted from forced labour.
• They were allowed to work in France.
• They were exempted from paying taxes.
• They were allowed trading rights like the French people.

Political privileges 

• They were allowed to send representatives to the French Chamber of Deputies.
• They were enfranchised like the French people in France (right to vote)
• They enjoyed the rights of the French Judicial System like the French.
• They were allowed to operate Local Authority’ structures which were similar to those in France.
• They were allowed to retain Muslim law.
• They were exempted from arbitrary arrest/through the Indigenization policy.

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 Characteristics of assimilation. 

• a) Administrative assimilation. There was an administrative relationship between the French colonies and their mother country. Colonies were regarded as overseas provinces. 
• b) Political assimilation. The colonies were represented in the French chamber of deputies thus maintaining a close political identity. 
• c) Economic assimilation. The French currency was used in the colonies to enhance the economic relationship. 
• d) Personal assimilation. Africans in the Quatre communes were given French citizenship and other privileges enjoyed by French citizens.

Reasons why assimilation was successful in the four communes. 

• a) There was a high percentage of Mullato population within the communes, who readily accepted the French culture making it easy for the French to apply assimilation. 
• b) Africans were familiar with Europeans and their culture due to long interaction with them through trade. 
• c) Many people had converted to Christianity and this made it possible for the French to apply their policy. 

Factors that undermined the application of the French policy of assimilation in West Africa.

• a) There was opposition by local people who did not want the French to interfere with their culture. 
• b) The Traditional African rulers resisted the policy since they did not want to lose their authority and influence over the assimilated people. 
• c) The French traders in West Africa also opposed the system they viewed assimilated Africans as a potential threat to their commercial monopoly in the region. 
• d) The policy of assimilation ran the risk of undermining the very foundation of French colonialism, as it was not possible to exploit Africans who had attained the assimile status. 
• e) Missionary school system of education undermined the French policy of assimilation since there was segregation in provision of mission education.
• f) Nationalism conflicted with the policy of assimilation. 
• g) Assimilation was becoming too expensive to the French government especially because West African colonies were not self-supporting yet. 
• h) The vastness of the French colonies made it difficult to supervise the implementation of the policy.
• i) Muslims resisted fiercely the French attempt to convert them to Christianity. 
• j) Racial discrimination against the indigenous people also contributed to the failure of the system. This is because many Frenchmen never accepted assimilated Africans as their equals. 
• k) The French citizens in the motherland opposed the policy as they feared being outnumbered in the chamber of deputies.

Ways in which Nationalism undermined the policy of Assimilation in French West Africa. 

• a) It emphasized loyalty or devotion to one’s country and national independence or separatism, which were against the policy of assimilation.
• b) Nationalists agitated for boycott of anything of French origin. 
• c) The nationalists created awareness on the value of African culture and systems; this encouraged Africans to condemn assimilation. 
• d) The nationalists created awareness on the importance of African unity which exposed the hypocrisy of assimilation

Consequences of assimilation in Senegal. 

• a) The policy of assimilation undermined African cultures, as many Africans embraced the French culture. For instance, the French language became the official language in the colony. 
• b) The authority of traditional African leaders was eroded and even many were replaced by the assimilated Africans. 
• c) The colony was incorporated into the French republic and regarded as an overseas province of France. 
• d) Africans from Senegal were allowed to participate in the political matters of France. Some Senegalese like Blaise Diagne were elected as deputies in the French parliament. 
• e) The spread of Islam was greatly frustrated, especially in the four communes where Africans were converted to Christianity.
• f) A great rift emerged between the assimilated Africans , who were regarded as French citizens and the rest of African communities , who were subjected to taxation and forced labour

The policy of association. 
   Under this system, the French colonial government was to respect the cultures of her colonial peoples and allow them to develop independently rather than force them to adopt French civilization and culture. 
    Unlike the assimilated Africans, subjects retained their cultural practices e.g polygamy and Islam. The subject came under a system of law known as indigenat where the subject could suffer arbitrary arrest or be forced to serve a longer period in the army than assimilated citizens. 
Why the French government replaced the policy of assimilation with that of association in 1945. 
a) The French had realized that assimilation would lead to equality between them and the colonized people. 
b) Assimilation was too expensive especially because West African colonies were not self-supporting yet.
c) The method clashed with the commercial interests. The French businesspersons and their friends in the colonial administration saw Africans as source of cheap labour. They therefore disapproved the idea of uplifting them. 
d) The French had realized that not all the colonial people could be assimilated. Only the elite ones among them could. Association aimed at transforming the Native elites into Frenchmen while allowing the other masses to learn enough French for communication purposes.
e) They had realized that there was need to allow the colonies to enjoy the freedom of 
developing according to existing traditional political and social structure. / respect for the culture of her colonies.
The similarities between the French and the British colonial administrations 

1. To help stop slave trade since slaves would no longer be needed to ferry goods to and from the coast.
2. To provide quick, safe and convenient means of transport for government administrators/troops
3. Open up Kenya for economic development/to stop slave trade/promote legitimate trade
4. To maintain law and order so that economic development could be achieved.
5. To make Africans more productive and able to generate revenue in form of tax to the colonial government.
6. ​To activate interior trade. To enable transportation of imported goods to the interior of the colony.

​The origin of USA dates back to 1776, when the thirteen British Colonies declared their independence from Britain. USA is a federal government, a form of representative democracy comprising a union of 50 states 
The adopted a new constitution in 1787 and has the following features.

• a) It is Federal in nature. 
• b) A written constitution. 
• c) Bill of rights is contained in it. 
• d) The Supreme Court can only interpret it. 
• e) Legislature is Bicameral i.e. the senate & the House of Representatives forming the congress/two houses.
• f) It caters for the separation of powers. 
• g) Does not provide for secession of a member state. 
• h) Federal government and individual states share power through their senators in congress i.e. in making laws.
• i) The president is the head of the federal government and governors are heads of state. 
• j) It is the supreme law of the land. 
• k) Amendment can only be done through a clearly laid down procedure.

​There are three types of election held in USA.

• a) The election of the president.
• b) Congressional elections 
• c) The state election involving election of state governors and state legislatures. 

All candidates vying for various seats must be American citizens and must be residents in the area they aspire to represent Age limit is 25 years for the representatives and 35 years for the president. During the election year party primaries are held between March and May to choose presidential candidates. Party conventions are held in July to confirm winners of the primary elections. Each presidential candidate picks a running mate who becomes the vice president if the presidential candidate wins. Presidential elections are held after every 4 years (on 2nd November). The election of the president is determined indirectly by the Electoral College that comprises electors appointed by each state. When a presidential candidate wins the popular vote in a state, he automatically wins all the State’s electors. Direct elections are done through popular vote of one man one vote.  
Senators and members of the House of Representatives are elected after every two years. Senators serve for a period of six years with a third of them elected after every 2 years. Members of the House of Representatives serve for four years and are elected on party basis. Each state elects 2 representatives to the senate making a total of 100 senators for the 50 states.  
Election of House of Representatives is on the basis of state population. For example, the largest state, California has 52 representatives while Wyoming, the smallest has only one representative. State governors and legislators are elected after every 4 years.
Features of the US system of government. 

• a) The federal government is made up of the legislature, executive and the judiciary.
• b) Each state within the federal government functions as a republic and enjoys equal status. 
• c) The federal government and independent states share the power of formulating and enforcing laws. 
• d) All states have their constitutions but they should not be contradicting to the Federal Constitution.
• e) The Supreme Court interprets the constitution. 
• f) The congress (Senate and the House of Representatives) is the body entrusted with legislative powers. 
• g) Senate membership is through popular vote of two members from each state for a period of six years. 
• h) The House of Representatives members are elected for a period of two years based on the size of the population. However, each state has to have at least one representative.
• i) All treaties and appointments by the president have to be ratified by the senate. 
• j) Presidential vote must be supported by two thirds of the votes of the house. 
• k) The Supreme Court made up of the chief justice and eight associate judges heads federal judiciary.
• l) The president appoints federal judges with the approval of the senate. 
• m) Courts in the judiciary include the court of appeal, the district courts and other special courts, all formed by the congress. 
• n)All criminal cases are handled in the courts except the cases of impeachment, which are voted by the house with the approval of the senate.
• o) Foreign policy and Defence is the preserve of the Federal Government. 

features of the state governments of U.S.A. 

• a) Each state has a governor.
• b) Each state has a law court those carters for internal affairs. 
• c) Each state provides educational, health facilities and public amenities for the welfare of the residents.
• d) Each state is responsible for its own development. 
• e) Each state generates its own revenue necessary for discharging its responsibility.
• f) Each state has a state police that maintains law and order.   

Limitations of state governments in USA. 

• a) No state is permitted to enter any treaty, alliance or confederation with other states or countries.
• b) No state may make her own currency. 
• c) States are forbidden, unless congress approves, to levy duties on imports or exports. 
• d) States are prohibited from maintaining armed forces. 
• e) States are prohibited from entering into any agreement with foreign powers or engaging in war.

​How the conduct of USA president is checked 

• a) The senate approves presidential appointees to executive positions. 
• b) Congress can refuse to approve the use of government funds for a foreign policy it disagrees with. E.g. war.
• c) The congress can impeach a sitting president if his conduct while in office is wanting. 
• d) The Supreme Court has powers to declare that the president has acted unconstitutionally, a verdict which can damage his status.
• e) Any president is limited by the constitution to two four-year terms in office. 
• f) Opinion polls normally reflect the wishes and feelings of the American people, which the sitting president cannot ignore. 
• g) The mass media monitors and reports to the general public every action or speech of the president.  

Functions of the political parties in USA’

• a) Make electoral policies coherent. 
• b) The party level helps voters to sort out through the candidates as parties usually stand for different policies.
• c) Parties help to put the desire of the people on the government policy agenda. 
• d) Parties provide outlets for citizens to express their sentiments about nominees. 
• e) Political party system provides accountability when the policies of the party fails/ voters hold candidates accountable.

​Differences existing between the House of Representatives and the senate in terms of membership. 

• a) The house of representatives is larger with more than 436 members whereas the senate has only 100 members. 
• b) The house of representatives has short period of office (2 years) but the senate is on for a long period of office (6 years) 
• c) Members of the House of Representatives at the elected by constituencies whereas the senate is elected by the stated 
• d) Easier qualification for candidates for membership to the House of Representatives. The senate demands stricter qualifications.
• e) The house of representatives is less prestigious than the senate. 
• f) Rules of the House of Representatives are more rigid than the rules governing the senate. 

 functions of the USA president.

1. He appoints cabinet ministers and senior civil servants with approval of the congress.
2. He is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
3. He is the head of the federal government of USA and the defender of of its constitution.
4. The president formulates the public policy.
5. He can veto or override bills passed by the congress.
6. As a head of the party in power, the president influences public opinion and thereby guides the course of the congress.
7. He guides and controls foreign affairs and makes treaties.

​Describe the Indian electoral process. 

• India’s parliament is composed of the Lower Chamber or House of The People (lok Sabha) and the Upper House or the Council of States (Rajya Sabha).
• The term of lok sabha is five years while that of rajya sabha is six years.
• Lok sabha consists of 545 elected members, 543 elected from each constituency created based on population size. The president nominates two.
• Political parties field candidates in each constituency.
• India’s universal adult suffrage is 18 years. Qualification age for vying is 25 years and above.
• The election commission, a constitution arm of the Indian electoral process oversees the elections.
• Candidates are required to declare their assets, age, educational qualifications and criminal history before being cleared to vie.
• Campaigning ends a day before the voting day. Government schools and colleges are chosen to be polling stations. Government servants are employed to man the polling stations.
• There is the use of electronic voting machines instead of ballot boxes.
• The candidate who gunners the most number of votes is declared the winner of the The party or coalition that has won the most number of seats is invited by the president to form the new government. The leader of the party becomes the prime minister.
• Rayja sabha consists of 250 members; the electoral college of India elects 248. The president nominates twelve members from among distinguished people.
• Every state is allotted a certain number of members.
• Candidate age limit is 30 years and above.

Functions of a prime minister in India.

• a) He is the head of the federal government 
• b) He is the leader of the house to which he belongs. (he can be either a member of the rajya sabha (upper house) or lok sabha. 
• c) As head of the council of ministers, the prime minister oversees the work o all the ministries. 
• d) Chairs cabinet meetings, which are normally held in the cabinet room of the prime minister's’ office.
• e) Guides the president on appointment to the cabinet.
• f) Participates in the lawmaking process as a member of the lok sabha.
• g) The prime minister has traditionally been the minister-in-charge of the department of space, atomic energy and the ministry of personnel, public governance and pensions
• h) Recommends persons for presidential awards. 

Functions of the Electoral Commission of India.

• a) Prepares electoral registers 
• b) Setting dates for polling. 
• c) Establishing and operating polling station. 
• d) Allocation party symbols. 
• e) Publishing electoral report.
• f) Accepting or rejecting nominations as per the law. 
• g) Counting the votes.
• h) Drawing constituency boundary. 

What conditions must one fulfill to be elected president in India

• a) He/she must be a citizen of India. 
• b) He/she must have attained the age of 35 and above. 
• c) He/she should not hold any office. 
• d) He/she should be qualified to be elected as a member of the house of the people. (the lok sabha)

Functions of the cabinet in the government of India. 

• a) Formulation of policy issues affecting the management of the government of India.
• b) Defends the government policy. 
• c) Ensures that the civil servants implement government policy. 
• d) Advises the president.
• e) Gives approval to the budget and estimates of the expenditure. 
• f) The cabinet exercises general direction and control of government departments.

Britain comprises England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The country has evolved a parliamentary system of government over the years. 
The Saxon Kings who invaded Britain in the 5th Century AD had absolute powers- ruling without consulting the citizens, and their positions were hereditary. However, in the 12th century AD, they introduced the parliamentary system. They agreed that the kings/queens could only rule according to the laws of the land that should be made by the representatives of the people. This was what came to known as a constitutional monarchy.

The electoral process in Britain 
The British government is based on the party system. Elections for party leaders are held separately before the general elections. The three main parties are the Conservative Party, Liberal Party and Labor Party. 
Unlike USA and other major democratic states outside commonwealth, there is no fixed date for British parliamentary elections. The date of a general election is decided upon by the prime Minister. 
The Choice of a date of elections is influenced by the following factors;
1.      The economic situation that is the availability of funds. 
2.      The state of the government’s legislative programme in the House of Commons. 
3.      The desire to increase government support in parliament.
The electoral system for the House of Commons is based on the principle of ‘one person, one vote’
There are two types of elections for the House of Commons. 

• General elections where members of the House of Commons are elected for a 5-year term.
• By elections in the event of resignation, death or resignation of a member of parliament. 

There are also local elections in which representatives of local authorities (councillors) are voted for are held every 4 years. The local authorities include the District Councils, London Boroughs, Metropolitan districts and Regional and island councils. 
In Britain, there are also euro-elections, first introduced in 1979, in which representatives to the European Union parliament are chosen.81 MPs were elected in 1979.​

​Voter Registration. 
It is the local authorities that hold the responsibility of registering voters. Since 1948, a postal vote is possible for citizens who are away from their constituencies during the voting period, either on business or other reasons. 
The following categories of people qualify to vote in Britain;

1. British Citizens over the age of 18 years.
2. Citizens from commonwealth countries who have resided in Britain for periods stipulated by law.
3. Citizens of the republic of Ireland who have been residents for periods stipulated by law.
   

The following are ineligible to vote in Britain.

1. Persons of unsound mind.
2. Convicts detained in a prison.
3. Persons convicted of corrupt or illegal practices in connection with elections cannot vote for five years from the date of conviction.
4. Adults whose names do not appear on the register of voters.
5. Peers or members of the House of Lords

A candidate who wishes to contest for a parliamentary seat in Britain must fulfil the following conditions;

1. He/she must be a British citizen or a common subject or a citizen of the republic of Ireland.
2. He/she must be of a minimum age of 21 years.
3. He/ she must be nominated by a political party or be an independent candidate.
   

The following are disqualified from vying for a parliamentary seat in Britain.

1. English/Scottish peers who have the right to sit in the House of Lords.
2. Clergy of the Church of England, or the Church of Ireland, Ministers of the church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic priests.
3. Aliens.
4. Certified Lunatics.
5. Undisputed bankrupts.
6. Convicted persons.
7. Persons who have committed illegal practices during elections like corruption.
8. Members of the armed forces.

Candidates vie for 650 parliamentary seats. The candidates are either nominated by respective parties or stand as independent candidates and need not reside in the constituencies as long as they register as voters in that constituency. Once nomination of candidates has taken place, campaigns are allowed for two weeks before voting; Each candidate appoints an election agent to manage the finances and protect the interests of the candidate during the campaign. The agent also explains the candidate’s party policies and identifies party supporters within the constituency. He/she familiarizes the candidate’s name to prospective voters. 
Election officials work hand in hand with party agents during Election Day. 
Each candidate must deposit 500 sterling pounds with the registrar, which is returned in the event that the candidate garners over 5% of the total vote in the constituency. 
Elections in Britain are by plurality. Candidates who get the highest of votes win the elections. The party that secures most parliamentary seats is declared winner and is asked to form the next government. Emphasis is on number of seats not votes cast. 
The House of Lords members are drawn from people with high offices. E.g. bishops, distinguished scientists and artists, great sportsmen, retired judges etc

​Functions of Government in Britain. 
The British government operates around four basic institutions;
  a)  The Monarchy.
  b)  The Legislature.
  c)  The Executive.
  d)  The Judiciary.
The Monarchy. 
In Britain, the Monarchy is represented by the queen. The Monarch assents to all legislations. The Monarch appoints the PM and approves the cabinet
Other Functions of the Monarchy.

1. The monarch as head of state advises government
2. The monarch summons, prorogue and dissolve parliament in consultation with the Prime Minister.
3. The Monarch gives royal assent to bills passed by parliament to become law.
4. Management of the country’s foreign policy including enactment of treaties.
5. It confers honours to persons who have rendered distinguished services. For example, the peerages to become Lords or knights and will be referred to as LADY OR ‘Sir’
6. The Monarch approves appointments to important state offices such as judges, senior members of the armed forces and civil service.
7. The monarch pardons and gives reprieve to people who have been accused of committing various offences.
8. The Monarch appoints Bishops and Archbishops of the Anglican Church.

NB; At the beginning of each new session of parliament, the monarch addresses both Houses together in the House of Lords to mark the formal opening of parliament. In the address, the monarch outlines government proposed legislations for the coming session.
Importance of the monarchy to the British people.

• a) The presence of the monarchy helps to give some continuity to executive policy. 
• b) It inspires the head of government with a sense of responsibility and dignity. 
• c) It acts as a useful counsellor to the head of government. 
• d) It is the symbol of commonwealth unity. 
• e) It sets standards for social life. The presence of members of the royalty at the inauguration of scientific, artistic and charitable works ensures nationwide support 
• f) The royal family pays state visits to foreign government and undertakes tours in other countries of the commonwealth, hence contributing to better understanding between Britain and other nations. 

The Legislature/parliament. 
It is made up of the monarchy, House of Lords and House of commons.
The following are ways through which one can gain membership to parliament in Britain;

• a) Elections.
• b) Nominations 
• c) Inheritance. 
• d) By Virtue of office. E.g. members of the House of Lords maintain their parliamentary seat whenever a new parliament is constituted.

Parliament is a supreme institution in Britain. It passes changes or repeals laws without being vetoed by the courts of law. 
How parliamentary supremacy is demonstrated in Britain.

• a)  Parliament makes amends and abolishes laws. No other institution can do that. 
• b) Branches of government operate under the laws passed by parliament. /parliament is the supreme institution in Britain and all other institutions derive their power from it. 
• c) Parliament can pass a vote of no confidence in the executive. / has powers to remove any unpopular government from office. 
• d) It approves government revenue and expenditure. / It is the only institution empowered to approve government budget. 
• e) Decisions of parliament are binding to all. They cannot be overruled or nullified by a court of law.

​The House of Lords. 
Membership to The House of Lords is based on nomination by the monarch or by hereditary principle. Some membership is through holding senior positions within the Church of England Consists of 1200 members 800 of whom are heredity peers, 26 are Bishops and 21 are Lords of Appeal. 
One can become a member of the House of Lords in the following ways;

1. Through nomination by the monarch.
2. When one holds hereditary parentage position. Normally the eldest male member of the family inherits the position.
   
3. Through holding some senior position in the society e.g. within the Church of England - Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Members of the House of Lords only receive sitting allowances. Only the Lords of Appeal receive annual salaries. 
Role played by the House of Lords in the British parliamentary system.

• a) The house of lords checks the powers of the House of Commons and therefore prevents nasty legislation. Bills from the House of Commons have to go to the House of Lords for debate and approval.
• b) It addresses non-controversial bills that the lower house has no time to address. 
• c) The house of lords holds bills from the lower hose long enough to seek public approval
• d) The House of Lords questions ministers about the activities of government and stages debates on general issues of national policy.
• e) It seats as a court of appeal for criminal cases. on such occasions , the court is presided over by the lord chancellor (speaker of the house)
• f) It provides a forum for utilization of the talents of people who could not win a general election. These people are created peers by the queen and become members of the House of Lords.  
• g) It enhances unity in the country as newcomers are created lords by the queen and then become members of the House of Lords. 
• h) It provides continuity in operation of parliament. Old experienced peers retain their seats in the House of Lords until they die, so provide guidance to new and young politicians.

​House of Commons. 
It is the major legislative arm of the government. It comprises 650 elected members representing constituencies. The leader of the House is the P.M. The chief officer is the speaker who is elected at the start of a new parliamentary session. 
Functions of the House of Commons.

• a) Discusses makes and amends laws. However, the monarchy and the house of Lords have powers to veto such laws. 
• b) Approves government revenue and expenditure. It controls finances. No taxes can be imposed without the consent of the House of Commons. 
• c) It has powers to pass a vote of No confidence in the executive (Check the powers of the executive to ensure that the rule of law is maintained.
• d) Debates on matters of national interest. 
• e) It directs government policy and keeps development programmes on track. 
• f) It is a training ground for future leaders.

Factors which influence the activities of Parliament in Britain. 

• a) Members of the House of Commons must consider the moral values of the British society before making any decision. 
• b) Parliamentarians are always sensitive to public opinion because any unpopular government or party risks not being re-elected.
• c) Local authorities are empowered to make by-laws even without consulting parliament. 
• d) Interests of the institutions under the spotlight are always taken into account before legislation is done in parliament. E.g. the Church, Universities, Farmers, trade Unions etc. 
• e) Legislation passed by one parliament can be changed by another future one. 
• f) International law is also taken into account when laws are made. 

NB; these are the factors that limit the parliamentary supremacy in Britain.
The executive. 
The executive is made up of the Prime Minister, the cabinet and the civil service.
The Prime Minister. 
Appointed by the monarch, being the leader of the political party that controls an absolute majority, He/she is the Chief executive of the country.
He performs the following functions;

• a) Appoints and dismisses Cabinet ministers with the consent of the monarch. 
• b) He/she recommends to the sovereign the appointment of senior civil servants such as the chief Justice, High Commissioners.
• c) He/she represents Britain in international fora. 
• d) He/she controls the cabinet secretariat and oversees the execution of cabinet decisions by various departments.
• e) He/she is the leader of the party that nominates him/her. 
• f) He/she settles disputes between various departments. 
• g) He/she is the leader of the House of Commons. 
• h) He/she initiates both domestic and foreign policies.

The Cabinet. 
The cabinet is made of the ministers appointed by the P.M with the approval of the monarch and nominated from the party with the majority of seats.
The cabinet performs the following functions;
a) The cabinet ministers institute policies that guide the operations in the various departments of the ministry.
b) Cabinet determines the policy to present to parliament for consideration. 
c) Cabinet is responsible for the coordination of government activity. E.g. all ministers must implement cabinet decisions with regard to their department.
The following conventions provide guidance on the operation of the cabinet;

• Once a government is defeated, on a major issue or on a vote of no confidence, it is expected to resign. A government whose party is defeated in General elections is expected to resign.  
• The cabinet is drawn from the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
• The entire cabinet comes from the same political party of majority seats except during a crisis like war. Since 1945, Britain has never embraced a coalition.
• The advice offered by the cabinet must be accepted by the monarch, failure to which a crisis can occur.
• All members of the cabinet take the Oath of the Privy councillors and are bound to Secrecy by this oath and the official secrets Act.
• Members of the cabinet are collectively responsible for all decisions and actions as well as individually responsible of the departments they head.

The Civil Service 
The British law stipulates the civil servants are servants of the crown. A civil servant is expected to nonpartisan and to serve the government of the day without favour. Civil service staff does not change with change of government. Recruitment In the civil service is based on merit.
Functions of the civil Service in Britain. 

• a) It implements ministerial policies as agreed by parliament.
• b) It assists in formulation of policies and generation of policy proposals. 
• c) It manages government administrative machinery. 
• d) It carries out normal duties that public administration demands. 

Principles that characterize the British civil service.

• The tradition of anonymity. Civil servants are taken to be carrying out the instructions of minister. Ministers get all the credit for all good, as well as censure for all that is criticized.
• The principal of civil service impartiality. Those civil services are expected to serve whichever minister is in office without partiality. Senior civil servants are not permitted to take part in national politics except voting.
• Ministers make policies and civil servants execute the policies.
• The tradition of assumption that it is not the task of the civil service to initiate change or take responsibility for planning future lines of social and economic development.

The Judiciary. 
The judiciary in Britain is based on the supremacy of the law. To safeguard the rule of law, the British Judiciary has an independent court system.
How judicial independence is ensured in Britain.

• a) The salaries of judges are not open to discussion by parliament. 
• b) Since 1701, judges have always bee appointed on good behaviour until retirement. 
• c) A Judge can only be dismissed by a resolution from both houses.

The structure of the British Court System.
(Further reading encouraged)
Components of the British constitution. 

• Statutes or acts of parliament e.g. act of union with Scotland of 1707. 
• Customs-the accepted traditions e.g. the first-born of the sovereign succeeds the king /queen.
• Law of precedence-judges applies accepted principles to new set of facts. 
• Custom of parliament e.g. the procedures of the two houses. 
• Historical documents e.g. the Magna Carta.

​The 1930’s witnessed the rise of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito
Mussolini of Italy and General Francisco Franco of Spain who intentionally defied international opinion and disregarded the Versailles Treaty and League of Nations. Their activities and those of Japan began to interfere with prevailing peace in the world. This happened at the time when USA had retreated into isolation leaving the task of maintaining world peace only to Britain and France. 
The Second World War involved most countries in the world with millions of people conscripted for service in both the military and war related industries. ​

a) Germany’s dissatisfaction based on territorial grievances. 
The Versailles treaty of 1919 imposed harsh and humiliating conditions on Germany, which aggrieved the Germans to the level of being ready to go to war again.
b)  The rise of nationalism in Europe. 
In Germany, the chancellor, Adolf Hitler who had the desire to dominate the whole world, fuelled it. For example, he encouraged German speakers in Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia to demand independence from Czechoslovakia. Italy under Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, in 1939 to regain her lost glory and national pride after the Adowa defeat I 1896. Syria rose up against France. 
c) Political developments in Europe.
In Italy in 1922, the fascist government under Benito Mussolini came to power. In Germany, Hitler’s Nazi government assumed power in 1933. The Fascist government in Italy emphasized on the regaining of lost glory. The Nazi government began a fresh new policy of aggression. 
d)  The economic problems caused by the great depression of 1929 to 1931. 
The great slump led to widespread unemployment, declining wages, poverty etc. these led to social discontent and political unrest in many countries of the world.
e)  The failure of Germany to pay reparations. 
This was followed by the French invasion of the Ruhr industrial region- a German territory. This led to increased tension. 
f)    Weakening of the League of Nations. 
Japan left the League of Nations after protest over Manchuria, which she had grabbed, from china. Italy left the League of Nations after Mussolini had grabbed Abyssinia and annexed it against the will of the allies and Ethiopians. Russia invaded Finland in 1939 and the league was unable to intervene. There were many secret treaties among members of the league. 
g)  The Spanish civil war (1936-1939). 
The republican revolution of 1931 ended the Spanish monarchy. The struggle between the royalists and socialists, however, continued. The European powers took sides in the civil war. France, Britain and Russia supported the royalists. Germany and Italy supported General Franco who was fighting from exile in Morocco.
h)  Growth of military alliances. 
Hitler and Mussolini established a military pact in 1936 (The Berlin-Rome Axis). it became the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis with the joining of Japan. The alliance between Russia and Germany to divide Poland widened the gap between them and the allied forces. It created fear and suspicion.
i)     The invasion of Poland by Germany. 
This happened in September 1939 was the immediate cause of the war. This upset Britain and France, who stated their intentions of assisting Poland. They declared war on Germany in October 1939.

The invasion of Poland by German forces on 1st of September 1939 and the subsequent declaration of war against Germany by Britain and France on 3rd of September 1939 marked the beginning of the Second World War. Meanwhile on 17th September 1939, the USSR attacked Poland from the East, as per the secret clause in the Nazi-Soviet act of August 1939. Poland had been overrun by German and Russian forces by 27th September 1939. The country was divided between Russia and Germany. 
The phoney war. 
This was a period during world war two when no major military operations were undertaken on the western front although war had been declared on Germany by France and Britain. The period lasted eight months from 3rd of September 1939. It was used by the Allied countries to fully mobilise their forces for an attack on Germany since they had not initially been prepared. Hitler on his part did not want to be involved in war in the west since his armies had not fully recovered from the consequences in the east.
During this period, two unsuccessful attempts were made to bring peace; 

• a) On 6th October 1939, Hitler and Stalin of Russia made an attempt to convince the Allies to accept the Nazi Occupation of Poland and make peace.
• b) On 7th October, King Leopold of Belgium and Queen Wilhelmina of Netherlands appealed to the Axis powers and the Western Allies to make peace.

War in Western Europe. 
On 9th April 1940, Hitler launched a sea-borne invasion against Norway after attacking Denmark via land. They were assisted by a Norwegian Nazi sympathiser Vidkund Quisling. The prime minister of Norway and his Ministers fled to London and Hitler established a puppet government in the country. 
The defeat of British and French forces in Norway sparked off a parliamentary revolution in Britain forcing the PM Neville Chamberlain to resign to be replaced by Sir Winston Churchill. 
Germany extended their attack on Luxembourg, Netherlands and Belgium. The Allies were unable to contain the German advance and even retreated to the French port of Dunkirk, marking a major defeat of the allies in Europe. 
On 14th June 1940, the Germans captured Paris forcing the new Prime Minister Paul Reynaud to sue for peace with Hitler on 22nd June 1940. Under the peace agreement, The Germans took over Alsace –Lorraine, Northern France and the Atlantic coastline. the French government fled to Vichy, southern France. 
Why the French were defeated so quickly. 

• a) The French forces were not psychologically prepared for the war and thus were found divided.
• b) The French forces were not as well organized as the Germans thus exposing various military weaknesses. For example, the Germans were supported by combat planes which the French did not use.
• c) Poor communication between the army and the airforce. The French generals failed to coordinate the war properly to the extend of ignoring the fact that the Airforce could have been used to drive German Bombers off.  

Having succeeded in their Paris onslaught, the Germans attacked Britain in July 1940. However, Winston Churchill, the British Premier, had mobilized forces to resist this attack successfully he even obtained reinforcement from USA. 
The battle of Britain determined the future of World War II. It forced Hitler to delay his attacks.

WWII in Africa was marked by the Italian successful attack on French and British Somaliland. Under Marshal Graziani, the Italian forces advanced to Egypt though unsuccessful. In June 1942, German forces moved to North Africa to reinforce the Italians. 
However, British forces led by General Bernard Montgomery moved quickly and captured Malta which would have been used as a base for attack by the Germans. 
General Montgomery attacked the Germans at El Alamein in Egypt, forcing them to move to west. On 8th November 1942, British and American forces invaded Morocco and Algeria. 
Although the Germans continued fighting in Tunisia, by May 1943, their Army under General Rommel had surrendered.
War in the Balkans. 
In August 1940, Hitler Attacked and captured Romania and Bulgaria. In April 1941, Yugoslavia and Greece were taken. Crete was taken in May 1941. 
On 22nd June 1941, Hitler attacked USSR forcing the Russian troops to retreat. However, he failed to capture Moscow before the onset of winter. In June 1942, the Germans resumed their offensive. They were finally defeated at the battle of Stalingrad on 31st January 1943 by the Russian Red Army led by Marshal Zhukov. The Germans lost 300,000 men while 100,000 survivors surrendered. 
By May 1944, the Russians had pushed the Germans from their territory and were approaching Germany itself.

1. The German army was fighting in several fronts at the same time as compared to the allies. This lack of concentration in one area allowed the other Russian army to defeat them. 
2. The soviet forces employed the scorched earth policy which left very little for the German forces.
3. The Germans ill-treated the soviet people and exploited their economic resources causing resentment and unity to fight with determination.
4. Weak leadership by the German military leaders contributed to their defeat.

​The Japanese attack on the American great Naval Base at Pearl Harbour on the Hawaiian 
island is the one incident that dragged USA into WWII. 
On 8th December 1941, the USA, Britain and the Netherlands declared war on Japan. The Germans and Italians also declared war on the USA. Russia kept off the war in Asia having signed a treaty with Japan. 
Japan resisted fiercely. Her air force sank two British battleships on 10th December 1941.She captured Hong Kong, Malaya in Malaysia and took over the great naval base at Singapore. She also occupied Burma, Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and parts of the western pacific islands. 
The Japanese forces were repulsed while on their way to Port Moresby, New Guinea in may 1942. 
In 1942, Britain used her bases in India to attack Japan. Japan attacked India in 1944, but the strong and large allied forces defeated the Japanese at the battle of Kohima.
The defeat of Germany. 
After 1942, the tide of success began to turn against Hitler. German forces were defeated by the allies in North Africa and France. By March 1945, the Allies had crossed the Rhine, pushed the Germans out of France in June 1944. The Germans were meanwhile facing the Russian attack from the East. Hitler accepted defeated and handed over power to one of the Military Generals to retreat to an underground Bunker in Berlin. 
On 29th April 1945, Hitler married his long term Mistress Eva Braun. On the following day, he committed suicide by shooting himself while Eva Braun took Poison. 
On 7th May 1945, the Germans surrendered unconditionally.
Why the Germans were defeated. 

• a) Germany had acquired far too many territories and she was unable to effectively control them.
• b) The USSR recovered from her losses and began to rearm in a bid to fight against Germany.
• c) The USA entry into the war in 1941 on the side of the allies contributed to the eventual defeat of the Germans.
• d) Germany’s Axis powers were only four, fighting against more than 27 allies. Even among the German collaborators, Italy surrendered while Bulgaria and Romania also were a burden to the Germans.

The defeat of Japan. 
After Germany surrendered, Japan continued with fierce fighting sometimes employing the services of suicide bombers known as Kamikaze. The allies were able to liberate the territories captured by Japan. After the defeat at Okinawa, Japan was certain of defeat, but her PM , Admiral Suzuki Kantaro, did not believe in unconditional defeat. On 6th August 1945, a bomber Aeroplane, Enola Gay, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets, flew over Hiroshima dropping a 4535.15kg atomic bomb. About 78,000 people died. On 8th August 1945, Russia attacked Japan. On 9th August 1945, an even larger Bomb was dropped on Nagasaki killing more than 40,000 people. Japan surrendered unconditionally on 15th August 1945 bringing WWII to an end.

• ​a) Allies had more wealth in terms of food, raw materials and equipments.
• b) Allies controlled the North Sea, which ensured safe transportation of troops and equipment. They were also able to block the central powers in the sea.
• c) Entry of USA in the war led to defeat of Germany. America had strong American air force and war resources,
• d) Germany’s inability to control her expansive territories and some turned against her and in favour of the allied powers.
• e) The unity, morale and determination of the allied leaders and fighters.
• f) Popular sentiment was for allied victory and Hitler’s defeat.
• g) Hitler's overconfidence and craziness did not allow him to comprehend the enormity of opposition up against him and the axis forces.
• h) External support especially from the colonial people in Africa, Asia and elsewhere.
• i) Axis powers dropped out of war one by one.
• j) Allies had better industries and financial resources/ superior economy, war tactics and superior diplomacy by all the allied powers.
• k) The axis powers made serious tactical mistakes e.g. Hitler failed to prepare for a winter campaign in Russia and was obsessed with the idea that Germans must not retreat.
• l) When the USSR recovered from her losses, she re-armed herself and attacked Germany.

Social results of Second World War 

• a) Depopulation and great suffering as Millions of people perished either in war or due to famine and diseases.
• b) People suffered psychologically and emotionally from the loss of loved ones and torture of the war.
• c) The end of the war witnessed change in the status of women. Women started doing work, which was initially monopolized by men. E.g. military and management.
• d) There was permanent ill health and shortening of life for millions of peoples because of years of under- nourishment or captivity.
• e) There was massive Destruction of property such as homes, houses, buildings, roads and bridges.
• f) A large number of people were displaced as people moved to look for peaceful areas and this led to great suffering. The new refugees included the Jews, Slavs and the poles.
• g) The war fomented bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought.
• h) The war helped to shade off the myth popularized by Europeans that they were a superior race to Africans as European causalities in the war proved that they were Mortals.

• a) Defeat of axis powers led to government changes in Germany, Italy and Japan.
• b) The division of Europe into two opposing blocs led to the cold war, which was followed by an arms race between USA and USSR.
• c) Germany was divided into two. The communist East and the capitalist West. The city of Berlin was also divided between the east and the west.
• d) Germany and Italy were weakened especially with the loss of their colonies.
• U.S.A & U.S.S.R emerged as superpowers. The pre-war balance of power was destroyed and the power vacuum was filled by two new superpowers, the USA and USSR
  
• f) A weakness of the League of Nations to prevent the outbreak of war was demonstrated. This Led to UNO formation.
• g) There was rise of nationalism in Asia and Africa. It led to Africans struggle for independence because they were confident knowing that Europeans were no superior to them. Nationalists among the Asians leading to attainment of independence in Pakistan and India in 1947, in Burma (Myanmar) in 1948, and in Ceylon (Sri Lanka.) in 1949.
• h) The Japanese destroyed the myth of European military superiority due to the defeat of British and American forces in the Far East.
• i) New states were created. In 1948, the state of Israel was established in the Middle East, to settle the Jews who were displaced during the war.

Economic effects of World War 2. 

• a) Agriculture and industries were disrupted due to lack of equipment, raw materials and human resources.
• b) External trade almost came to a standstill because of fear and insecurity.
• c) It led to increased dependency on colonies by European powers. There was need of raw materials to reconstruct the destroyed industries.
• d) Some Industries were established in the colonies to manufacture goods because of the difficulties faced in running them during the war.
• e) It led to the rise of European economic cooperation. The post war economic destructions led to the need for cooperation. This paved way for formation of the European Economic Community in 1957.

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​In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson, President of the USA, outlined, in his speech to the congress, the ‘fourteen points’ that were essential in maintenance of world peace.
Among these were three great principles that formed the basis of world peace namely; 

1. Self-determination of all peoples, i.e, the right of peoples all over the world to determine their own fate.
2. The need to make public all diplomatic and international agreements.
3. The need to establish a League of Nations which would provide an avenue for discussing all international problems, protect small states from aggression by large ones.

 In January 1919, statesmen from the 27 Allied powers converged at Paris, France to determine the fate of the defeated central powers. The central powers were not party to the discussions but were required to sign on the final draft. The Key personalities at the conference were;

1. Lloyd George( PM of Britain)
2. George Clemenceau (PM of France)
3. Woodrow Wilson (President of USA)
4. Vittorio Orlando (PM of Italy)

 Five treaties were signed with each of the central powers separately as follows;

1. The Treaty of Versailles with Germany (28th June 1919)
2. Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria (10th September 1919)
3. Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (27th November 1919)
4. Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (4th June 1920)
5. ​Treaty of Sevres in 1920 and Lausanne in 1923 with Turkey.

​It should be noted that all the above treaties were generally referred to as the Treaty of Versailles.
Terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919.

• a) The treaty declared Germany an aggressor who was supposed to pay reparations and whose military capability was to be reduced.
• b) She lost all her colonial passions with the African colonies being taken from her and put under supervision of the League of Nations.
• c) The treaty of St. Germaine provided for the creation of Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Malta as mandated territories.
• d) Germany was totally disarmed and only allowed to retain a force of 100,000 soldiers and her navy was disbanded. Military conscription was banned in Germany.
• Germany’s population and size was reduced as Austria, with a large German population was allowed to remain independent. Italy acquired Stria, the Italian-speaking region of Austria.
• f) Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized. Germany troops were not allowed in the region.
• h) By the treaty of Versailles, Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France.
• i) The treaty established the League of Nation.

Failures of the treaty of Versailles.

• a) The treaty handed Germany a heavy punishment as if she was the only one to blame for World War 1. This provoked deep resentment and bitterness among the German nationals.
• b) The treaty ignored the interests of the colonial people. The former colonial possessions of Germany and turkey were handed over to France and Britain in total disregard to the African grievances during the Versailles conference.
• c) The treaty failed to carter for the interests of the minority in Europe. The new republic of Austria was forbidden from merging with Germany though a national vote was for the merger.
• d) Italy was given a raw deal in the settlement. She was only given Stria, an Italian-speaking region formerly belonging to Austria.
• e) Though the treaty proposal for the formation of the League of Nations came from the USA president Wilson, the US constitution prohibited commitment to such an Organization, whose membership required a nation to help a future victim of aggression,.

RESULTS OF WORLD WAR I 

• a) Nationalist movements in Asia and Africa grew in strength and number after the war and a sense of patriotism arose.
• b) USA gained an upper hand in the post war European affairs. She emerged as a leading world power.
• c) German military capability was reduced on land and sea and heavy indemnity imposed on her. She lost all her colonies, which were made mandated territories of the League of Nations.
• d)The end of the war marked the beginning of the decline of western imperialism. As early as 1920, there was a possibility of independence for colonial countries. The war encouraged imperial powers to give more freedom to their subjects.
• e) The end of the war witnessed the creation of new states e.g. Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Finland.
• f) Germany and Italy fell in the hands of dictators e.g. Mussolini and Hitler.
• g) The war Created bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought in the war. This continued until the outbreak of the Second World War.
• h) It led to the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia as radicals took over government there.
• i) It led to a change of government in Britain.
• j) There was greater use of motor vehicles and aircraft, which facilitated transport.
• k) The art of surgery improved.
• l) Between 1914 and 1918, European factories were destroyed and business brought down hence heavy losses.
• m) There was massive destruction of property and infrastructure.
• n) It led to the great depression 1920 to 1921, which affected economies worldwide.
• o) It led to increased taxation by he colonial authorities to meet war and post-war demands.

​Origin and organization of the League of Nations. 
The League of Nations was established by the victors of the First World War in 1920 at the treaty of Versailles with the main aim of preventing the occurrence of another war. 
The idea of its formation was mooted by Woodrow Wilson, the US president who was supported by Lord Robert Cecil of Britain, Jan Smuts of South Africa and Leon Bourgeois of France. 
The League of Nation came into force during the first meeting in London Britain, on 10th January 1920. 
Reasons for the formation of the League of Nations in 1920. 

• a) It was formed for the Maintenance of world peace / It was specifically created to prevent the outbreak of another world war
• b) The League of Nations was meant to foster international cooperation in solving problems as they arise.
• c) It was formed to jointly take instant action against an agreed aggressor by economic and possibly by military means.
• d) Members were to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labour as one way of maintaining peace in the world.
• e) It was formed to oversee development of territories lost to central powers during the First World War. E.g. Tanganyika, Togo, South West Africa etc.

The main organs of the League of Nations were; 
The Council. 
It was made up of permanent and Non-permanent members. The permanent members were France, Britain, Italy and Japan. Non permanent members were four, elected by the general assembly. 
The main role of the council which sat in Geneva was to appoint committees and secretary General with the approval of the majority of the Assembly. It also dealt with disputes amongst member states, reduction of armament, execution of arbitral awards and admittance and expulsion of members. 
The Assembly. 
It met once a year at Geneva and was comprised of three delegates from each member state. It elected non-permanent members to the council. The functions of the Assembly included; 

• a) Control of the Budget of the organization (including contributions and expenditure).
• b) Admission of new members after approval of a two-thirds majority.
• c) Appointment of non-permanent members of the League of Nations Council.
• d) Consideration of treaties.
• e) Supervision of the work of the League of Nations council.
• f) Appointment of the 15 judges of the permanent Court of International Justice.
• g) Giving approval to the appointment of Secretary-General. 

The Secretariat. 
The Secretariat, based in Geneva, consisted of the secretary general and his staff. It was the administrative body of the League of Nations. It kept records of the organization and conducted correspondences including treaties by member states. It implemented thedecisions of the League of Nations. It provided continuity between one meeting of the council or the assembly and the next,
The International Court of Justice. 
Set up between 1920 and 1922, it comprised of eleven judges and four deputy judges elected for nine years by the assembly and the council. It was based at the Hague-Holland. Decisions made by the court were binding on all parties in dispute. 
International Labour Organization. 
It consisted of 4 delegates- two for member states and two for workers from each member state. Its main aim was to maintain good working conditions for men, women and children. 
The Mandates Commission. 
It had then responsibility of supervising the administration of the trustee colonies. The League of Nations also had several specialized agencies.

1. The League of Nations, through the Permanent Court of International Justice, maintained international peace and security. E.g. in the city of Danzig in spite of the hostility between the poles and the Germans.
   
2. The League of Nations achieved its objective of treating the minority with humane. The International Office for Refugees, for example, assisted refugees. Victims of the Nazi persecutions were also assisted.
3. The league assisted in the administration of the trust territories, through the Mandates Commission. E.g. in Togo, Tanganyika Cameroon and Rwanda-urundi. In addition, the territories acquired from turkey. E.g. Iraq and Palestine.
4. The league was able to solve several interstate disputes in a peaceful manner. E.g the frontier dispute between turkey and Iraq over the Mosul province (1924-1926), the dispute between Poland and Germany over northern Silesia.
5. The league successfully restored financial stability in Austria following the economic slump in the country after the World War 1.
6. It successfully enforced control over the manufacture and sale of arms. It also held disarmament meetings.
7. The league ensured signing of peace treaties to promote security in the world. For example, the Locarno treaties of 1925 that settled boundary disputes between Germany and France.

Failures of the League of Nations. 
The League of Nations failed its Prime objective of maintaining world peace in the following ways; 

1. It failed to solve the Sino-Japanese dispute after Japan invaded Manchuria in China in 1931. Japan after refusing to abide by the League’s demands that it withdraws from the Chinese territory, even pulled out of the league in 1933.
2. The Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Benito Mussolini, rather than accept the League’s verdict that he withdraws Italian troops from Ethiopia, pulled out of the League.
3. The League failed to stop German Violation of the terms of the Versailles Treaty. She embarked on a remilitarization programme and established a navy and an airbase.
4. Nations continued to make many defensive pacts in total disregard of the Treaty of Versailles.
5. Germany invaded other regions such as Poland and Austria between 1936 and 1939, while Russia invaded Finland in 1939 in violation of the League of Nations.

Factors that undermined the effectiveness of the League of Nations.

1. Member countries were not willing to take disputes to the international court of justice.
2. German was still determined to increase its military strength and continue with its aggression policy.
3. Individual nations were more preoccupied with national interests and pride, at the expense of the organization’s interests.
4. The Versailles peace settlement resolutions were too harsh to Germany thus leaving the Germans aggrieved and refuse to cooperate with the League of Nations.
5. The League of Nations lacked the executive authority to implement its resolutions.
6. USA congress refused to ratify the treaty of the League of Nations. This denied the organization diplomatic and economic strength.
7. There was shortage of funds to implement the functions of the League of Nations.
8. The Appeasement Policy of Britain and France forced them to stand aside and avoid taking a firm action against Japan when she invaded china, Germany when she invaded and occupied Rhineland, and Italy when she attacked Ethiopia.