​Evolution can be defined as a process of slow or gradual change. Although our knowledge about the early stages of man's evolutionary process is limited, it is certain that through evolution, man experienced both physical and cultural changes over millions of years, transforming him from a primitive form to the state he is in today.

Several millions of years ago, man and apes shared a common ancestry as primates. Man's particular family group is called Hominidae while that of the apes is Pongidae. Through evolution and environmental adaptation, man soon separated from his ape-like ancestors and took his own line of development. The first stage in this series was marked by the appearance of creatures called hominids which were more man-like than ape-like and therefore the ancestors of the human family.

Most information about the early man is obtained from archaeologists. Archaeological studies have proved that Africa was the cradle of mankind; man first originated and lived in Africa before moving into Europe and Asia. Existing evidence shows that the earliest apes and hundreds of other different kinds of animals first lived probably around what is now lake Victoria and the Rift Valley before moving into Europe and Asia, less than two million years ago.

At this time, there were thick forests near the equator, especially in Central and West Africa. Around the Great Lakes of East Africa there was savanna or grassland with scattered trees and bushes. It is in this environment that man may have had his first home.

Studies carried out in Central and East Africa show that the Great Rift Valley was formed and was still taking shape long after hominids had started roaming about in East Africa. At that time, earthquakes tilted the ground and volcanoes brought up a great deal of ash which covered places where the hominids had left their weapons and tools. Some hominids' remains even their own bones and those of other animals were covered too. The location of those remains form major archaeological sites in East Africa.

Information on History and Government is in three forms namely: 

1. ​Unwritten
2. Written

​These are sources which are are not recorded. Such as:

​This is the information acquired by word of mouth as communicated from generation to generation. In traditional societies this information was passed on by village elders, court workers, jesters and griots, who also acted as custodians of the history of their people.

​Oral tradition is most useful in societies where the art of writing is not fully developed. Lack of written records of events had convinced most Europeans that Africa had no history. It was believed that history could only be preserved in written form and since African societies had not developed the art of writing, it was assumed that they had no history. This led many African historians in the middle of the 20th century to become actively interested in finding out the past lives of the indigenous peoples of Africa.

They are methods through which information is conveyed in oral traditions. 
They include:

• Myths
• Legends
• Songs
• Folktales
• Poems

​This is the scientific study of language. Language itself is part of culture. It can be studied in an attempt to discover what its form, content, grammar and vocabulary can tell us about the historical experience of the people who use the language.

​Distribution of languages is of great importance to the historian as are relationships between languages. People who speak languages of the same family may be assumed to be themselves connected or have been in close contact at some time in the past. Variations between languages of the same family can show how long ago the break in contact occurred. 

The greater the difference. the longer the time since ancestors of those speaking these languages separated. Careful comparisons can indicate migratory patterns and the spread and influence of a language as a whole or of certain concepts held by the society which spoke it. The study of "loan words" from other languages can show how a neighbouring influence has affected one aspect of culture, or how a certain feature has itself borrowed or been imposed on others.

​Archaeology is the study of material remains from past human life and culture. Examples of such material remains are stone tools, pottery, wooden implements, metal objects, graves and features like buildings, as well as remains of plants and animals exploited for subsistence by pre-historic people. An archaeologist, just like the oral historian, attempts to provide information about the ancient past on which there are no written records.

​In his or her work, an archaeologist starts by locating archaeological sites where people lived. Then he or she excavates the remains of the people. settlements, sites, caves and cemeteries. An archaeologist studies and classifies the artifacts from the archaeological sites. The classification may show the levels of human occupation on a settlement site and survival of the material possessions of a particular people.

The general principle is that, cultures identified by an assemblage of material possessions, will be found in layers of succession; the oldest at the bottom. This is only applicable to the extent that there has been no disturbance (e.g., by burrowing animals or volcanic activity at the site under study)

​Archaeologists use the following methods to date fossils and artifacts:

​It is a measure of the amount of carbon remaining in a fossil or artifact.

​It is a measure of the amount of potassium remaining in a fossil or artifact due to volcanic eruption.

​It studies the fossils and artifacts found in succession layers of the earth's surface.

It studies the layers of successive deposits of rocks.

​Studies the age of artifacts from the amount of uranium remaining in the track of rock.

​The age of objects is determined through association of events with names.

​​This is the study of a people's origins, development, customs and beliefs. Anthropology concerns itself with present day social organisations in relation to customs, cultural values, institutions, forms of government, systems of marriage, inheritance, descent and religious practices. In addition, an anthropologist is interested in such material aspects of life as farming, cattle keeping, fishing and technology.

The anthropologist's description and explanation of the beliefs and customs of today help visualise what the culture being described looked like in the past. The historian needs to understand how a society functions today and what its key concepts are, and how it functioned at an earlier date. The present is therefore used to explain the past.

​This is the recorded information collected from cave wall paintings, stone tablets, oral tradition, books, diaries, newspapers, magazines, journals and other written records. Writing has an important part in the preservation of history. Important events or occurrences are recorded for purpose of being communicated to others. In this form, the historical events are stored in a relatively permanent way. 

​Once written, the recorded materials can be read over the years. Though written history is very old in countries like Japan, Egypt, Iraq and China, it is only recent in East Africa where the oldest known writing on history of Africa was written between A.D. 50-100 by Arab travellers and explorers.

​This is the scientific study of the ways in which characteristics are passed from parents (or, in plants, from parent stock) to their offspring. Genetic studies are useful from a historical point of view when they relate to plants. 

​The historian is interested in plants from the time of their domestication, after which he assumes their movements and the appearance of new cultivated varieties may be identified with the people of whose economy they form apart. 

​Botanists can suggest where the first centre of domestication was. This would be the region where the largest numbers of varieties of the plant can be found today.

​Can only be used in areas with electricity.
They are expensive to obtain and use. They require experts.

The word government comes from the word 'govern' which means to control through regulations and a set of rules. Government means the way of ruling, administering and controlling a people. It deals with the exercising of authority and the directing of Electronic. people's lives as spelt out in their society.

Generally then, government is seen as the political organisation, structure and authority. It affects every aspect of man's life as a social being who is subject to some form of authority, starting from the home to schools and to all other organisations.

​The regulations and rules set in any social unit or organisation and the way they are implemented is an important aspect in government.

​In many cases, there are individuals or officers, assigned the duty of ensuring that all the rules, laws, customs, traditions and regulations are observed.

These individuals have the power to punish those who break rules. Government is, therefore, a form of organised control in a defined geographical area, e.g., a country.

The control is exercised. by a small body of people. It is this body that enforces laws for and on behalf of a larger section of the population or subjects.

The government is therefore the small body of persons within a country who make and enforce laws.
In conclusion, government deals with people's attempt at organised life, while History is the study of people's political, social and economic activities in relation to their environment.

Government is therefore, part of history. It is people's attempt to govern themselves, their political activities Proverbs in relation to the rest of society. History and Government is therefore the study of people and society.

History is divided into three branches. These are:

1. Political History.
2. Social History.
3. Economic History.

This is the study of a people's way of ruling, people's leaders and the system of administration. It involves controlling, guiding, directing and managing people's activities and actions.

This is the study of people's beliefs, dressing, taboos, literature and religion. It involves the understanding of the cultural practices and ways of life of a people.

This is the study of how people make their daily living. It is the study of the occupations of a people. It involves such activities as hunting and gathering, agriculture, industry, trade, transportation and communication.

There are two basic periods in history:

• Pre-history;
  the study of history of man in the distant past that relies on scientific laboratory examinations of excavated materials and fossils.
• History;
  this is the study of man in recent times. This period relies mainly on raw data from narrations and written works within memorable past.

History as a discipline is the study of man's past chronological account and record of events in relation to the environment. The study of which articulates, develops and encourages critical analysis of the social, political and economic aspects of man.

The word "History" is derived from a Greek word 'Historia' which means to ask, enquire or search for the truth and report the findings. 

There are many definitions put forward on the meaning of history. However, it is generally argued that history is man's attempt to answer the questions: What event? Who was involved? When, and why it took place as well as what effects the event had or has on the people involved.

History is also a record, account, and analysis of human activities and relationships on earth in a given time. It is an important discipline that records, preserves and integrates both the physical and social developments as they affect man.

​

• By 1510, the conquest of the East African coast was over and administration fell into the hands of the Portuguese. For easy administration, the coast was divided into two zones;
  • a. The area North of Cape Delgado was ruled by the Captain at Malindi 
  • b. The area South of Cape Delgado was ruled by Captain at Mozambique 
• Both captains were answerable to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa on Indian coast at the General headquarters. Cape Delgado was made the midpoint of the East Africa possession. Sofala was made the regional headquarters but still under the charge of the captain who took his orders from the viceroy at Goa. Later, the Captain in the North was stationed at Mombasa after the construction of Fort Jesus in 1593 because they were rebellious. Other forts and garrisons were established at Sofala and Kilwa.
• The Portuguese captains were responsible for the collections of tributes from coastal rulers. They imposed the customs dues on all imports and exports. They were also responsible for the suppression of rebellions on the coast. The Portuguese had problems with administration because they could not provide enough troops to all garrisons their strongholds.
• The Portuguese were more interested in gold trade in Sofala. Unfortunately, they failed to develop this trade because of the following;
• There were wars in the mining areas between the Portuguese and Coastal people.
• As a result the Portuguese were so cruel that any sign of disobedience was punished with maximum brutality to serve as a warning to others who might choose to rebel. This partly explains the unpopularity of the Portuguese on the coast.
• The Portuguese also applied the policy of divide and rule by setting one town against the other. For example Malindi against Mombasa.
• The relationship with the subjects was not good. They lived in isolation of each other by race and religion. The Portuguese established their own settlements, built their own churches and had their own priest. This could be the reason why their religion was rejected and hatred increased.
• In addition, the few Portuguese officials were corrupt, plundered and ordered destruction on the coastal town. All this earned them hatred and opposition from the people and it was not a surprise that they were nicknamed "AFRITI" meaning Devil.
• The Portuguese did not mix freely with Africans because they considered themselves to be a special race.
• During the Portuguese reign, the glory of the coastal states was no more. The high standards of living the coastal people had enjoyed were no more. The trade that had made them rich was declining. Many buildings were in ruins and there was widespread poverty and misery

​

• In 1585, a Turkish captain, Amir Ali Bey, arrived at the coast as an envoy of the sultan of turkey to free the coastal towns from the Portuguese. Rebellion then broke out between 1585 and 1588 between Ali Bey, the Portuguese, and the people of Mombasa and Zimba warriors. The towns of pate, Siyu and Pemba were attacked and forced to pay heavy fines while manda was completely destroyed
• As a result of their ruthlessness, the coastal people became hostile to the Portuguese.
• Mombasa for example resisted the humiliation they got from the Portuguese appointed sultan
• The sultan’s heir Yusuf was treated as a servant who resented the people of Mombasa
• On 15th august 1631, during the Christian feast of Assumption in Mombasa, Sultan Yusuf stabbed the captain with a knife, killing him instantly. This sparked off a rebellion where many Portuguese were killed.
• Yusuf posed a threat to the Portuguese rule until his death in 1637.
• The people of pate also revolted in 1666. However, their ruler was arrested and exiled to Goa where he was executed
• In 1622, the Persians drove the Portuguese from Hormuz. In 1650, the Portuguese were expelled from their bases in Muscat by the Omani Arabs under sultan Saif
• Britain, France and Holland also began to compete the Portuguese in trade.
• The final blow to Portuguese rule was attack by the Omani Arabs and the seizure of fort Jesus. The coastal Arab towns had appealed to their brothers in Oman for assistance against the Portuguese brutality.
• In 1652, an Oman fleet sailed to pate and Zanzibar, overpowered and killed the Portuguese.
• In 1696, Imam Saif Ibn Sultan of Oman sailed to Mombasa with a large fleet and army. The Portuguese took refuge in Fort Jesus as battle raged on (about 2500 Portuguese men, women and children) the Portuguese were unfortunate as they could not get supplies to sustain the war with 3000 plus Arab soldiers with full packing of the coastal people.
• In 1697, the Omani forces got access to the Fort and found most Portuguese afflicted with disease. By December 1698, the Omanis penetrated the Fort only to find all except twelve Portuguese dead. This marked the end of Portuguese rule though they made a temporary seizure of the fort in 1728 but were overpowered.
• For the coastal people, it was however a mere change of guard from the Portuguese to the Arabs

• Since the 10th century Arabian influence along the coast had been strong. Most of the port towns along the East African coast had been built by Arab Sultans, who brought the Muslim religion to the coastal people.
• The Portuguese explorer and soldier, Vasco da Gama, was the first European to make contact with the people of the East African Coast. He had been paid by the King of Portugal to find a sea route to India.
• The Portuguese at the East African coast 1500 – 1700 A.D
• The Portuguese were the first Europeans to have contacts with the people of the East African Coast.
• They invaded the east African coast in 1498 at a time when the Ottoman Empire occupied most of the Middle East thus blocking the overland route to India from Europe.
• They were adventurous and in search for the sea route to India. This led them to the East African Coast where they stayed for 200 years.

The existing documentaries and archaeological evidence about the historical information on the east African coast include;

• The Graeco- Roman Documentary which only makes indirect references to the east African coast.
• The Swahili chronicles written by the people of the coast. E.g the Kilwa chronicle gives account of achievements of coastal rulers before the arrival of the Portuguese.
• Periplus of the Erythrean Sea; by a Greek merchant in 1st Century AD describes the people and places along the coast and the Indian Ocean Trade. (Erythrean Sea Trade).
• Geopgraphia by Claudius Ptolemy makes reference to east African coast and the trade along Somalia and Kenyan coasts.
• Christian Topography of Cosmos Indico of the 6TH Century describes the trading activities on the coast of East Africa.
• Renowned travelers like Al-Mosudi, Al Idrisi and Ibn Battuta wrote firsthand accounts about the places they visited and the people they met at the coast in the 10th Century AD.
• The existing archaeological evidence in east Africa include the remains of pottery , iron tools, beads and coins which prove the presence of international trade

​In Africa, agriculture first spread to Egypt along the Nile valley, where it was practiced as early as 700BC.

• Identify:
  • The animals  domesticated in ancient Egypt.
  • Crops grown in ancient Egypt.
• Identify the farm implements  that were used in Egypt
• Explain the factors that promoted (facilitated) agriculture in ancient Egypt

Reasons why farming in continental Europe was not as advanced as it was in Britain. Continental European countries learnt modern methods of farming from Britain. Initially, farming in continental Europe was not as advanced as it was in Britain because:

• The French were affected by frequent wars
• Italy was restricted to Spain, which was prospecting for minerals in South America
• Holland, Denmark and Germany were involved in large scale world trade, which was more profitable at that time
• Continental European farmers went for practical scientific and agricultural research in England

• The Yellow River valley,
• The Middle East,
• The Indus River valley.

• Zebu cattle,
• Water buffaloes,
• Elephants,
• Horses,
• Goats,
• Sheep,
• Pigs.

​​From mid 18th century onwards, scientific ideas and new techniques of farming were applied as a result of the scientific and industrial revolutions.
The changes that marked the Agrarian Revolution in Britain. (What were the characteristics of the agrarian revolution in Britain?)

• The land enclosure system (fencing and hedging of plots), which replaced the Open Field system in 1750.
• Mechanization, i.e. use of new farming methods, which required large farms as opposed to the previous small strips.
• Abolition of fallows. Farmers could no longer leave the land fallow to regain its fertility as was the tradition. Increase in population meant demand for more food, which required most of the land to be put to use.
• Introduction of crop rotation. Lord Viscount Townsend developed a four-course rotation system called the Norfolk, which consisted of barley, clover, turnips and wheat on the same plot of land over a four-year period, by which land retained or gained but would not lose its fertility.
• The introduction of inter cropping. It was discovered that growing crops like maize and beans on a given piece of land at the same time enabled land to regain fertility, since such crops did not require the same nutrients from the soil and they gre w well if planted together.
• Use of fertilizer. This was pioneered by Lord Viscount Townsend, who recommended manuring of land to increase yields per hectare.
• Use of machines. This changed agriculture from a small scale subsistence activity to a large scale business for both subsistence and commercial purposes.
• Selective breeding of livestock. This was invented between 1725-1795 by Robert Bakewell.
• Introduction and all-time availability of cattle feed, which helped ensure supply of fresh meat all the year round.

​A piece of land was divided into three portions: one for growing corn and wheat, the second for beans, peas, barley, oats and bush wheat, while the third was left fallow to regain fertility. Sometimes, this third piece was left for grazing and homes.

Each portion of land was divided into several strips, depending on the number of peasants in a village.

​Each peasant had his own strip, on which he was meant to cultivate  just enough for the needs of his family since agriculture  had not yet been commercialized.

​Agrarian revolution started with invention and use of machines from mid 18th century, when food production increased as the number of workers on the farm reduced. By the Neolithic period, agriculture had reached Europe, particularly Switzerland, Spain, Italy and Turkey, where rice and barley were mainly grown.

​The Americas is the origin of many crops in the world today. Indigenous Americans (American Indians) were subsistence farmers. They grew a wide range of crops. From the 17th century, many people, particularly from Western Europe, migrated into America, bringing with them skills, enterprise and enthusiasm. They took and established animal breeds and crop varieties, which led to increased export trade.

​Agriculture  is cultivation of crops to satisfy human needs.

• Increased human population, for which the natural environment could not provide adequate food
• Climatic  changes,  which hindered pure reliance  on nature for livelihood
• Competition for food among and between people and animals
• Calamities  such as floods and bushfires, which cleared vegetation for wild animals

​​In Mesopotamia, which today is part of Iraq, food production began around 8000 BC having been introduced by settlers from the Iranian plateau. Jarmo in the Kurdish foothills represents the earliest stage of Agriculture. As men went hunting and gathering, the women they left behind may have experimented  with wild grasses that grew around their compound until they found out and grew the edible plants, paving the way for organized  agriculture.

• Animal domestication started about 10,000 years ago in some regions of earliest civilizations like south-west Asia, Greece, Crete, Algeria, Egypt, North Africa, Sahara, the Lake Turkana region and southern Africa
• Animal domestication started before crop growing. Development of both crop growing and animal domestication were by chance
• Animal domestication was gradual. While hunting and fetching water, man established close ties with, caught, took care of and bred the animals  in captivity until they were tamed
• Domestic animals like dogs, goats, sheep, cattle and camels were useful in various ways, e.g. provision of food and protection. The dog, which was the first animal to be domesticated, assisted in hunting, driving away dangerous wild animals and herding livestock

• The River-lake Nilotes,
• The plain Nilotes
• The Highland  Nilotes.