Cushites: The Peoples of Kenya Up To the 19th Century [Copy of Reference Materials]

Describe two groups of the Kenyan Cushites

THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UPTO THE 19TH CENTURY [CUSHITES]

• The Southern Cushites, who moved southwards and settled in the highlands and plains of Kenya and northern Tanzania. They were later assimilated by the groups that found them in the region, such as the Irak, Boni, Burungi, Nilotes and Bantu. In Kenya, the only remaining Southern Cushites are the Dahalo, who live in the lower  course of River Tana
• The Eastern Cushites, who may have first settled in the Horn of Africa i.e. somewhere to the north of Kenya: either in Ethiopia or Somalia  after migrating from Arabia in 1000BC. They then migrated  into Somalia  and reached northern Kenya in 1000AD

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Identify Kenyan communities  that make up the Eastern Cushites

• The Borana,
• The Somali,
• The Oromo,
• Gabra,
• The Rendile,
• The Burji.

​The Eastern Cushites migrated  into Kenya much later than the Southern Cushites.

Explain/trace  the migration and settlement of the Oromo and Borana into Kenya

​THE OROMO

• They arrived in Kenya in the 16th century and settled on the eastern shores of lake Turkana.
• They tried to move eastwards but were stopped by the Somali. They therefore moved south-eastwards and reached the coast in around 1600AD.
• In the area around Shungwaya, they confronted and forced the Mijikenda and Pokomo to leave. They occupied Malindi and Kilifi.
• Even before their arrival in Kenya, the Oromo had conflicts with the Somali, which continued up to early 20th century when both signed an agreement by which they settled in their present homeland. Today, the Oromo are found on the southern part of the river Tana and are neighbours  to the Pokomo.

​About 1000AD, more Borana groups migrated  into present-day Kenya from Somalia  due to war between Somali nationalists  and British colonialists

THE BORANA

• The Borana, who are part of the Oromo-speaking people of southern Ethiopia, migrated into Kenya in the last quarter of the 19th and the first quarter of the 20th century. They were running away from the heavy taxation and rule of Menelik II
• They spread into Kenya and settled in Wajir, Marsabit and Moyale.
• About 1000AD, more Borana groups migrated  into present-day Kenya from Somalia  due to war between Somali nationalists  and British colonialists

CUSHITES

Explain the economic activities of the Borana during the pre -colonial period

• They were nomadic pastoralists. They kept cattle, sheep, camels and goats.
• They traded with their neighbours and acquired grains in exchange for livestock. Their neighbours included the Pokomo and the Mijikenda.
• Those who settled along river Tana grew some food crops

Discuss the socio-Political organization of the Borana in the pre -colonial period

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

• They were divided into clans.
• Each clan was led by elders.
• The residential  section was the camp.
• The senior married man was recognized  as the head of the camp. He was referred to as Abba Olla. His wife‟s hut was built on the extreme left of the camp.
• The huts of others would be built  from left to right, depending on their rank.
• There was a Gada system, based on age-sets. Each Gada produced its own leader called Abba Boku.
• The Borana had two kinship groups: the Gona and the Sabbo.
• The man called Abba Wara, headed the family while the wife 'Hatimana' was the female head of the household.
• The Borana worshipped one God, who they called Wak.
• The religious  leader in the community was called Qaalu.
• The Borana were patrilinial. The first male born would inherit all the property of the father. Today, Borana territory extends up to the area north of the river Tana

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

• They were divided into two halves (Moieties).
• The Moieties were subdivided into submoieties, which were then divided into clans. Each clan comprised related families.
• A hereditary leader (Kallu) headed each moiety.
• The Kallu was a Judge and spiritual leader, who arbitrated in minor disputes.
• There was an Age-set system, on which their military organization was based.
• The Borana also had a Gada system, which comprised eleven grades. Each Gada class lasted eight years and passed through eleven grades from birth to death.
• Members of the Gada elected a Gada council, which made decisions.    

​Between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries AD, many of the Somali converted to Islam and established the Ajuran state near Mogadishu.

Trace/discuss the migration and settlement of the Somali into Kenya.

• The Somali were living in Mogadishu by the 10th century AD. Around that time, they began to move southwards, probably because the Oromo presented a threat, or because they were looking for pasture, since they were nomadic pastoralists.    
• Between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries AD, many of the Somali converted to Islam and established the Ajuran state near Mogadishu.
• By the 17th century, the Somali pushed the Oromo out of their traditional homeland near river Juba. The Oromo responded by migrating into Kenya

Identify/explain the economic activities of the Somali in the pre -colonial period

• They were nomadic pastoralists.  They kept donkeys, camels, goats and cattle.
• Some of them, particularly those who lived in Oases regions and along river valleys, practised subsistence agriculture; they grew grain crops, vegetables, dates and bananas.
• They practised iron smelting and made iron tools like swords, knives, bangles and arrowheads.
• They hunted wild animals  and gathered roots, vegetables  and fruits.
• They engaged in crafts such as leatherwork. They made handbags, belts and clothes.
• Some of them who lived near rivers and along the Indian ocean practised fishing, using fence traps, hooks, and lines.
• They traded, mainly with their Bantu neighbours,  particularly the Bantu, to who they sold iron implements and leather products.

​Today, the Somali constitute  the largest single  group of Cushites in Kenya.

Discuss the socio-political organization of the Somali in the pre -colonial period

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

• They were organized  into clans.
• The clans were headed by a council of elders, who settled disputes and maintained law and order, among their other roles in the community.
• Circumcision marked the transition from childhood to adulthood and was mandatory for both boys and girls.
• They believed in one God (wak).
• Men took care of animals  as women concentrated on domestic activities.
• Being nomadic pastoralists,  they moved from place to place in search of pasture.
• They converted to Islam and adopted the Islamic way of life.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

• They were divided into clans.
• The clans were headed by councils  of elders, who maintained  law and order.
• After circumcision, young people formed age-sets.
• With Islam, the political  system changed to give way to the new leaders: the Sheikhs and Islamic  Law (Sharia)
• Today, the Somali constitute  the largest single  group of Cushites in Kenya.

State the reasons for migration and settlement of the Cushites into Kenya in the pre - colonial period

• Family feuds (internal rivalry) back in their original homeland.
• Population increase or pressure in their area of origin.
• Search for better pastures for their livestock.
• Outbreak of diseases in their area of origin, which affected people and livestock.
• Famine and drought in their original home-area.
• Hostility and attacks by the neighbouring communities, such as the Somali.
• The spirit of adventure, especially the Eastern Cushites.
• Heavy taxation by the rulers of the areas they originally lived in, especially Menelik II

​The Borana were patrilinial. The first male born would inherit all the property of the father. Today, Borana territory extends up to the area north of the river Tana

Explain the economic activities of the Cushites in the pre -colonial period

• Pastoralism, characterised by keeping of camels, cattle, sheep and goats, which provided them with milk  and meat and gave them prestige.
• Trade, mainly with their Bantu neighbours such as the Mijikenda and Pokomo.
  
• Fishing, particularly by Cushites living along the coast and near river Tana.
• Agriculture, also practised by those living near river Tana. Grains, peas, beans, pepper and other crops were cultivated.
• Hunting. Wild animals  were hunted for meat, ivory, hides and skins.

Discuss the social organization of the Cushites in the pre -colonial period

• They were organized into clans, each of which comprised related families with a common ancestor.
• They had the Age-set system.
• They believed in one God.
• By the end of the 16th century, most Cushites had been converted to Islam through interaction with Muslim immigrants and therefore adopted Islamic culture.

Explain the principles under which the Age -Set system operated among the Cushites in the pre-colonial period (Explain how the Age Set system functioned  among the Cushites in the pre-colonial period)

• Boys were grouped into age-sets after circumcision (between 10-15 years of age).
• The Age-set system was based on about ten groups.        
• Once placed in a set, a boy remained  in it all his life.    
• Age-sets provided the community with professional warriors.    
• Senior age-sets were retired from active public life and were settled in different  territories.
• A ceremony was performed at the end of every age-set cycle to keep the age-set system strong.

Identify religious aspects/practices among the Cushites during  the pre-colonial period (Explain the influence  of religion among the Cushites    in the pre-colonial period)

• They believed in one God.        
• They referred to God by different names. For instance, the Oromo called him Wak.
• They regarded God as all-powerful  and controller of everybody's destiny.
• They prayed to God for all their needs

Discuss the political organization of the Cushites in the pre -colonial period

• Each clan existed and operated independently, except in times of difficulty, e.g. in case of an invasion, when clans formed alliances to face the enemy.
• Each clan was headed by a council of elders, who were major role players, particularly in maintenance of law and order.
• After circumcision,  young people formed age-sets.
• With Islam, the political system changed to give way to the new leaders: the Sheikhs and Islamic Law (Sharia)

​Even before their arrival in Kenya, the Oromo had conflicts with the Somali, which continued up to early 20th century when both signed an agreement by which they settled in their present homeland. Today, the Oromo are found on the southern part of the river Tana and are neighbours  to the Pokomo.

Explain the role/duties of the council of elders among the Cushites in the pre -colonial period. (Explain the functions of the council of elders among the Cushites in the pre-colonial period)

• They presided over assemblies.
• They maintained  law and order.
• They served as ritual experts.
• They settled land disputes.
• They had the final say or were the final court of appeal in decision-making.
• They had the final power and were the final authority,  even among clans that had the Sultan, such as the Somali.

What were the effects/results of migration and settlement of the Cushites into Kenya? (Explain the consequences of the migration and settlement  of the Cushites into Kenya)

• High mortality rate due to fighting among various groups during migration. E.g. the Somali and Oromo frequently engaged in warfare, in the process of which many people were killed.
• Displacement. As new groups came into Kenya, they pushed out others. For example, in their southward movement in the 16t h century AD, the Oromo forced the Mijikenda and Pokomo out of Shungwaya.
• Exchange  of cultural practices as some of the communities  interacted and formed alliances. E.g. the Samburu and the Rendile formed an alliance against the Turkana. Increased population as various peoples migrated into Kenya.
• Introduction of new cultural practices in Kenya. For example, the taboo against fish consumption among some Bantu speakers has been traced to the Cushites. Other new cultural practices include circumcision and the age-set system.
• Intermarriage,,  e.g. between the Pokomo and the Borana.
• Intensification of trading activities in Kenya. For instance, by the 19t h century, they were trading with the Samburu and Maasai.
• Population redistribution in Kenya. For example, the Mijikenda were scattered at and from Shungwaya and had to change their course of migration.
• They adopted mixed farming methods, which they got from the Bantu.
• They converted to Islam, which they spread among their neighbours

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