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COMMON QUESTIONS ON DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE TOPIC

10/12/2022

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​COMMON QUESTIONS ON DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE TOPIC

  1. Define the term agriculture.
  2. Describe the theories put forward to explain the origin of agriculture.
  3. Name:
    1. Four crops Mesopotamia. grown
    2. Two types of irrigation which were used by early Egyptians.
    3. Three animals domesticated by 4,000 BC.
  4. Explain the process through which man domesticated animals.
    1. Define the term Agrarian Revolution.
    2. Identify factors responsible for Agrarian Revolution in Britain.
    3. Give results of Agrarian Revolution in Britain.
  5. Compare the factors responsible for Agrarian Revolution in America and those in Britain.
    1. Outline causes of food shortage in the Third World countries.
    2. Give the effects of food shortage in Third World.

​Suggested Activity

Hold a class debate on the topic: Solutions to Food Shortage in the Third World is to be found in the Third World itself.
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Solutions to Food Shortages

10/12/2022

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​Solutions to Food Shortages

​Land Reclamation

​This is the turning of potential land that is otherwise wasted into productive use. This can be done through irrigation in arid lands, draining swampy places or clearing bushes. 
​In places where this has been attempted new land has been availed for cultivation leading to increased food production, e.g., Mwea Tabere Irrigation Scheme in Kenya as seen in figure 3.15 and desert reclamation in Libya, and the Gezira Scheme in Sudan.

​Agricultural Policies

​The agricultural policies should be reformulated from a concentration on cash crops to pay more attention to food production. New policies should also promote inter-dependence between agriculture and industry.

​Provision of Extension Services

​This refers to services such as advice, research, information dissemination, storage and preservation of farm produce especially food. Extension services are vital for the development of agriculture. These should be improved and the extension staff should be well equipped and kept conversant with all developments in their fields, so as to pass on this information to the farmers.

​Family Land Use

​This is the way families use available land through government policies and incentives like subsidies. Families should be encouraged to have at least a sizeable portion of their land under food crops. This would lead to self-sufficiency for the households, which could eventually contribute to national food self-sufficiency.

​Research and Development

​There should be an increased emphasis on research and development. Research can lead to the use and production of more efficient fertilisers, pesticides, and equipment and machinery.

​Infrastructural Development

​Infrastructure refers to the development in transport, communication, storage, marketing, banking and credit facilities. These should be improved to link the farming areas with towns which provide market for the produce, machinery and inputs.

​Reforestation Programmes

The aspect of planting more trees may influence the pattern of rainfall especially where unplanned and wanton destruction of trees has taken place. This will check desertification.

​Environmental Conservation ​Measures

​This relates to the conservation and protection of water-catchment areas. The building of gabions and terraces to check soil erosion and the proper utilisation of land can lead to an increase in food production like strip cultivation.

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Effects of Food Shortage in Africa and the Rest of the Third World

10/12/2022

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​Effects of Food Shortage in Africa and the Rest of the Third World

​High Mortality rates

​There is bound to be an increase in death rates due to starvation of the people. This is caused by drought which makes it impossible for people and their animals to find food hence widespread famine.

​Increase in Poverty levels

​There is bound to be a general increase in poverty among the masses. This will in turn increase the rate of crime, e.g. robbery with violence.

​Economic Decline

​Countries that face food shortages will in turn experience economic decline. People who can not find food will not take part in other economic activities, but only dedicate their energies in search of food.

Erosion of National Prestige

Countries that experience food shortages are constantly depending on foreign aid and grants. These may lead to overdependence on outside assistance which makes the countries not to stand on their own. The above situation can result into neo-colonialism.

​High Debt Burden

​The countries that receive food aid to solve their food shortage problem may have high debt burden. This is because all they generate in terms of revenue goes towards food and not servicing their foreign debts. This is common in Third World countries.

​Increase in Insecurity and Political Instability

​Food shortages may result in insecurity as people who do not have will resort to violence and criminal activities in order to get the badly needed food.

​Decrease in Population Growth Rate

​The population growth rate will decrease due to high mortality rates and low birth rates. It should be noted that a hungry population can not reproduce as food is an essential element in human reproduction.

​Damping Problem

​Regions that have food shortages can easily become damping grounds for foodstuffs which are not consumed in developed countries. These are foods that may with time affect agricultural production of the regions. 
​For example, in 2003 Zimbabwe refused to accept genetically modified maize from America, as it was thought to have negative impacts on local agriculture.

Political Influence 

​People in countries that are affected with food shortages are bound to suffer if their governments use food aid as political tool against those who do not support them. Their democratic rights like choosing leaders of their choice will be curtailed.

​Refugees Problems

​There is bound to be movement of people from areas (countries) that are experiencing food problem. They become refugees in neighbouring countries or regions where they experience problems of misplaced people. They also cause problems to people they are living amongst such as pollution, insecurity and environmental destruction.

​Spread of Diseases

​Diseases that are related to food shortages are likely to break out and spread especially those that are nutritional in nature, for example, kwashiorkor, marasmus and stunted growth. 
​The desperation may also make people be involved in immoral practices such as prostitution leading to the spread of HIV/ AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections.

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The Food Situation in Africa and the Rest of the Third World

10/12/2022

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​The Food Situation in Africa and the Rest of the Third World

​The Third World is the term used to refer to countries in Africa, Central and South America as well as part of Asia. These are also referred to as Developing Countries or Less Developed Countries (LDCs).
Most of them were colonised by Western European countries and their economies were determined by their former colonisers. Although they gained political independence, the economies of most of these countries have remained weak, while their food situation remains fragile. 
​Most of their attempts to attain self sufficiency in food production have been unsuccessful. This has led to serious food shortages and so they have had to get food aid from developed countries and international organisations like the World Food Programme (WFP).

​Factors that have Contributed to the Shortage of Food in the Third World

​Inappropriate Agricultural Policies

​​Greater attention has been paid to cash crops such as coffee, tea, cocoa, rubber, cotton and sugar-cane at the expense of food crops like maize, rice and wheat. This is a carry-over from the colonial period when cash crops from the colonies served as raw materials for the industries in the "home" countries. 
Large tracts of land as well as a lot of resources have been devoted to these cash crops at the expense of food crops. This trend did not change at independence as these crops were and continue to be the main earners of foreign exchange.

​Adverse Climatic Conditions

​Most Third World countries lie within the tropics. Many of these countries experience climatic conditions characterised by little or no rain at all. It is in these areas that most deserts are found like Sahara and Kalahari deserts of Africa. The Sahel Belt of West Africa is another example.

​Rapid Population Growth

​The rate of population growth exceeds the rate of food production in most of these countries, leading to food shortages. This is further complicated by the fact that most of the population is wholly dependent and is not involved in food production due to their young age.

​Insufficient Infrastructural Development

​In most of these countries, infrastructural development in transport, communication, storage facilities and marketing is insufficient. Efforts by farmers to improve yields are often frustrated by this. 
​The poor transport and communication network in most Third World countries has hampered the investment in food production which requires immediate access to markets and storage facilities.

​Labour Pattern

​​Rural-urban migration has increased labour shortage in the rural areas and negatively affected food production. A bias towards white collar jobs within the population is partly responsible for this drift. 
In Africa, the HIV/AIDS scourge is seriously affecting the availability of labour for agriculture, as most of those infected are those that are economically active. This has made the aged and very young to assume the responsibility of working on the farms so as to feed the greater majority, a task they can hardly perform leading to low agricultural output.

​Capital

​Lack of capital to buy costly machinery, and fertilisers, and to practise modern agriculture has had adverse effects on food production. 
​Consequently, farmers in most Third World countries are still using traditional methods and tools like hoes and digging sticks which limit the area that can be cultivated. This limits the yields.

​Human Activities

​Destructive human activities like cutting down trees expose the soil. These coupled with overgrazing have led to soil erosion, landslides and a decline in soil fertility. These have lowered food production.

​Pests and Diseases

​These have rendered many potentially productive areas useless. Such areas include those infested with tsetse flies, and locusts. Pests such as the grain borer, locusts and the army worms have destroyed large quantities of food crops in the Third World countries.

​Poor Processing Facilities

​The processing facilities in many of these countries are poorly equipped and are therefore inefficient. Many of the processing firms do not pay the farmers that provide the raw materials promptly, a situation that has discouraged the farmers from seeking ways and means of improving production.

​Natural Calamities

​Many countries in the Third World suffer from various natural calamities such as floods and droughts. These destroy farmland and lowers crop yields.

​Political Instability

​Political instability in several Third World countries has diverted attention from food production. Many countries in Africa have experienced war and so they have relied on food imports. Many have been rendered as refugees hence dependant on food aid.

​The Declining Production of Indigenous Crops

​The production of disease and drought- resistant indigenous crops like cassava, yams, sorghum and millet has declined. Farmers have opted for crops such as maize, wheat and rice without paying attention to their suitability for the area.

​Overdependence on Donations and Foreign Aid

​This has greatly affected investment in agriculture as more of these donations from external donors like the World Bank are used in cash crop than in food crop production. 
​Consequently, the economic programmes of Third World countries are altered to suit these donors. This has also led to a situation where Third World countries have heavy annual debt repayments that leave inadequate finances for the agricultural sector.

​Poor Implementation of Policies 

​Many Third World countries lack the commitment to implement the plans and policies on food production that they design.

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The Agrarian Revolution in the United States of America

10/12/2022

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​The Agrarian Revolution in the United States of America

​​The United States of America is in North America which covers the USA, Canada and Mexico. It is home to many popular crops including maize, potatoes, tobacco and pineapples, among others. These were cultivated by the indigenous American communities, the Red Indians.
From the 16th century Europeans from different parts of Europe migrated to North America to escape religious and political persecution. These early settlers founded various colonics on the east coast of America and learnt to cultivate the indigenous crops from the native Americans.
Following the Agrarian Revolution in Britain, agriculture in the USA developed due to influence from Britain.

​Factors that led to Agrarian Revolution in the USA

​Immigration

​As a result of the enclosure system many poor people lost their land. Some of them moved to North America. They carried the new skills and knowledge that they had gathered from the Agrarian Revolution in Britain. They also took cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, fowl and seed, and improved them as they moved to the new world with a lot of enthusiasm and zeal to succeed.

​Modern Farming

​The agriculture that developed in the USA was originally a blend of the old and the new. The modern plantation and estate farming, the crop-zoning, the use of hybrid seeds and farm machinery, the teaching of agricultural economics and extension education, and the increased use of fertilisers transformed agriculture into a big industry.

​Availability of Suitable Land

​Due to its size, the USA covers several climatic zones and so a wide variety of crops can be grown and many different kinds of livestock can be kept. This coupled with the fact that the USA was a vast country inhabited by few people meant that there was a lot of land available for all kinds of agriculture. 
​This led to the creation of specialised agricultural zones. The most prominent zones are the cotton and corn belts, the wheat, the dairy, the range and livestock areas, and zones for crops like rice, potatoes, citrus fruits, etc. Large-scale agriculture in all these areas is practised.

​Availability of Labour

​With the development of plantation farming a lot of labour was required. Thus, from the 18th century many slaves were transported to the new world including the USA in the Trans Atlantic trade. These provided cheap labour especially in the cotton, sugar and tobacco belts.

​Development of Machinery

​The invention and use of new machinery was also a characteristic feature of the Agrarian Revolution in the USA as it was in Britain. John Deere invented the steel plough in 1831 as an improvement to the iron plough that was in common use. 
​Cyrus McCormic invented a reaper in the same year. Later on, American scientists developed the refrigerator which preserved food by keeping it at low temperatures. These methods of preserving food and improved transportation encouraged farming.

​Government Policy

​​The American government supported the agricultural sector. In 1862 the Homestead Act was passed. This legalised individual land ownership. It also authorised the Federal Government to grant financial assistance and loans for the purchase and development of land. With the capital availed to them, many farmers turned to large-scale farming or ranching.
In later years the government granted subsidies to the farmers and introduced tariffs on imported agricultural produce. These measures were put in place to protect the farmers against competition from imported agricultural produce.

​Infrastructural Development

​The development in the transport and communication network in the USA especially the roads, railway and waterways enhanced and facilitated the advancement in agriculture. This made it possible for inputs to be transported quickly to the farms, and farm produce reach the market fast and in good condition.
USA crop zones
USA crop zones

​USA crop zones

​Large-scale farming/Estate farming Large plantations were established that initially used slave labour before the introduction of machinery.

​Use of Fertilisers

​To improve soil fertility, artificial fertilisers was used. Pest controls were invented that curbed spread of crop/animal diseases.

​Effects of Agrarian Revolution in USA

  • Many inventions to boost farming, e.g., mechanical reaper by Cyrus McCormic.
  • Agro-based industries expanded.
  • Development of infrastructure, e.g. roads and railways.
  • There was increased food production leading to population increase.
  • Mechanisation was widely used replacing slave labour.
  • Agricultural products were exported to Europe and Asia increasing trade.
  • Need for labour caused slave trade in Africa causing suffering and death.

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The Agrarian Revolution in Britain

10/12/2022

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​The Agrarian Revolution in Britain

​​The Agrarian Revolution began in Britain. It was at its peak between 1750 and 1850. Agriculture was transformed from a simple and humble occupation to a complex and highly professional practice.

​Factors that led to Agrarian Revolution in Britain

Growing Demand for Agricultural Produce
​There was a big demand for food by the rapidly growing urban population and an even greater demand for agricultural raw materials for the many modern and improved textile and leather factories.
​The Agrarian Revolution caused more fallow land to be cultivated.
​Waste and moorland was reclaimed while increased irrigation saw food being grown all year round. Farmers then started using improved cultivation methods to produce more food from the land.

​​Farm Mechanisation

In 1701, one of the early British experimental farmers, Jethro Tull invented the first major farm implement called the seed drill. The seed drill made it possible for seed to be sown in rows, or drills. English farming was improved by the implement because the land between rows was kept clean and inter-row crop farming was made easier. Later, farm machinery was introduced for all sorts of farm work.
​Jethro Tull also invented a horse-drawn hoe in the same year (1701) which replaced the harrow. With the use of this new machine, it was possible to keep the roots of plants moist and clear harmful weeds since it went deep into the ground.
​Harvesting of crops which was a slow process and required many workers was also solved. Andrew Meikle invented a mechanical thresher in 1876 which speeded up the process. In the same way, from 1825, the iron plough effectively replaced the wooden plough. With machines for ploughing, threshing, harrowing and harvesting, the costly farm labour was minimised and wastage reduced and food production increased.

​Breeding of Livestock

​Meanwhile, another farmer, Robert Bakewell (1725-1795), had been experimenting on selective breeding for livestock. He developed animal husbandry and is credited for new improved livestock breeds such as the Shorthorn, Devon, Hereford, Aberdeen- Angus and Ayrshire. Some of the modern breeds of cattle.
​Sheep breeds such as the Leicester, Shropshire, Suffolk and Oxford, and pigs such as Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth were developed.

​Crop Rotation

​Turnips and clovers could be grown alternately on the same land. Clover was a cattle feed which also enriched the soil. Turnips, barley or oats, clover and wheat were now raised in a four-course rotation. Lord Townsend (1674-1738) who himself was an estate owner and renowned farmer popularised the rotation method.

​Abolition of Fallows

​The abolition of wasteful fallows increased land for cultivation.

​Use of Fertilisers

​Another improvement in agriculture in Britain followed Lord Townsend's recommendations that land should be manured to increase yield per hectare. Consequently, from 1835, Britain imported the phosphate-rich guano from Peru. Then in 1843, a superphosphate factory was opened in London by Sir John Lawes.

​Enclosure system

Another feature of the Agrarian Revolution was fencing and hedging of plots which replaced open fields in 1750. In the same year, Government legislation was passed making it mandatory for farmers to fence their land. This legislation quickened the pace of hedging and fencing. 
​By the Nineteenth century, almost all the farmland in Britain had been enclosed. The enclosure system reduced the risk of either crops or livestock contracting diseases as was the case in the pen fields. Aggressive farmers could now increase production without the hindrance of their neighbours.

​Land Consolidation

​The small strips of land were consolidated together to give room for large-scale farming.

​Scientific Methods of Food Preservation

​The development of canning and refrigeration made it possible for farmers to preserve perishable foodstuffs in large quantities and for domestic use.

​Industrial Revolution

​The industrial revolution provided the agricultural sector with inputs and at the same time market for their produce.

​Results of the Agrarian Revolution n Britain

  • Increased Food Production.
    There was an increase in quality and the quantity of food produced.
  • Population Increase
    The increase in the quantity, quality and variety of food available led to improved diets. This reduced deaths caused by malnutrition resulting in an increased population.
  • Emergence of New Classes
    A new class of wealthy land owners emerged consisting of those wealthy people that had bought land and created agricultural estates. The peasants who had been evicted and went to work in the industries formed the working class.
  • Unemployment
    The peasants that had been displaced found themselves without work. They then moved to seek employment in the industries. However, not all of them were employed. Some of those unemployed engaged in crime and other vices in an attempt to survive.
  • Rural-Urban Migration
    People moved to the urban centres to seek employment in the factories, while others sought to set up businesses in these centres.
  • Migration to other lands
    The big population of landless people were inesitably forced to drift away to work in the neighbouring industrial towns while others worked in the enclosed estates. It was also this pool of displaced people who readily emigrated to new lands of USA, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.
  • Indurialisation
    The Agrarian Revolution led to the development and expansion of agro- based industries. Agricultural produce from crops and livestock saw the growth of textile and dairy industries.
  • Improved Standards of Living
    For the farmers there was a significant improvement in their standards of living. This was the result of the increased income that agriculture generated.
  • The Royal Agricultural Society
    ​This society was formed in 1838 in order to facilitate the exchange of ideas among farmers. It published discoveries and organised agricultural shows and fares. The society grew with affiliates all over the world even today, e.g., the Agricultural Society of Kenya.

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​Disadvantages of the Open-field System

9/12/2022

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​​Disadvantages of the Open-field System

  1. Land was not fully utilised as the land that was left fallow produced nothing.
  2. The cart tracks and paths that went through the unfenced fields wasted land.
  3. The practice of ploughing the fallow fields and leaving it idle was a waste of labour and time. Because pieces of land were scattered all over, families had to travel long distances to reach their fields.
  4. The open-field system also discouraged livestock rearing.
  5. Because of the common grazing fields for livestock, diseases spread very easily.
  6. ​It was even more difficult to practise selective breeding.
  7. It was not easy to get enough hay for winter breeding. The farmers were, therefore, forced to slaughter animals in autumn and have the meat salted for later use.

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The Agrarian Revolution

9/12/2022

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​Definition of AGRARIAN REVOLUTION

The Agrarian Revolution was the radical change in methods of agriculture and livestock rearing.

​​Characteristics of Agriculture in Europe before the Agrarian Revolution

  1. Land belonged to the King (feudal Lords) who gave it to noblemen known as Lords of the Manuor.
  2. The land was then rented to peasant farmers who paid rent through labour.
  3. The land owners practised open field system where land was divided into three portions:
    (i) Corn and wheat
    (ii) Beans, peas, oats
    ​(iii) Left fallow
  4. Each portion was then sub-divided into strips for the peasant's family needs.
  5. There were paths and cart tracks in the farms.
  6. Subsistence farming was done.
  7. Broadcasting method of farming was practised.
  8. Land was not fenced.

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Impact of Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia

9/12/2022

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Impact of Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia

  1. Adoption of a Sedentary Lifestyle
    People moved to areas where their farms were situated and settled there abandoning nomadism.
  2. Division of Labour
    People began to specialise in specific occupations. Some concentrated on farming, while others made implements.
  3. Trade
    Trade emerged as the people within various professions regularly exchanged their products for those that they lacked, e.g., pots could be exchanged for grains.
  4. Urbanisation
    The areas where trade took place grew steadily in both size and population becoming urban centres. More and more people settled here due to their convenience, since they would not have to travel constantly to trade for supplies.
    The craftsmen also set up their premises at these central locations as they did not have farms of their own. Examples are Ur, Nippur and Babylon.
  5. Social Classes
    The society began to be stratified as specific classes began to emerge as people developed various measures and degrees of wealth and prestige. Thus, there were different levels of prestige for land owners, blacksmiths, potters, weavers, etc.
  6. Development of Laws and Government
    As the population increased, it became necessary to have regulations that would guide peoples' activities so as to avoid conflict. Thus, laws were created. This was followed by the need for an authority to ensure that the laws were obeyed. This led to the formation of governments. It is from these governments that kingdoms and empires grew.
  7. Invention of Writing
    With increased food production came the need for record-keeping and thus writing was developed. This form of writing was called cuneiform.
  8. Education
    Record keepers conversant with writing and mathematics were required and thus centres began to emerge where people, especially from the upper class, could be trained in literacy and numeracy. This was the origin of formal education.
  9. Inventions
    Important inventions including the ox- drawn plough, the seed drill and the wheel were made.
  10. Development of Religion
    With time man began to perceive that there were other forces that determined the yields from his farm. The sunand other elements of the weather were recognised to have influence over harvests. As a result man began to beseech these to deal with him favourably. This he did by speaking to them and later by offering sacrifices to them. Thus, various gods emerged that were related to agriculture, e.g., Ninuria god of floods.
  11. Architecture
    Due to advancement in Mathematics and Science, the inhabitants of ancient Mesopotamia were able to construct great buildings. Some of these were included in the seven wonders of the ancient world like the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The buildings that have survived since the ancient times have served as important historical monuments.


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​Factors that led to Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia

9/12/2022

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​Factors that led to Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia

  • The fertile silt that the rivers deposited.
  • The water from the rivers that was used to irrigate the fields.
  • Land reclamation methods e.g., the construction of dykes.
  • Labour which was provided by the local population as well as slaves.
  • Various inventions of the Sumerians.
    ​These included the plough and seed drill that assisted in the production of the crop, the wheel that was used on carts to transport the produce, and the clay and woven vessels that were used to store the produce.
  • Availability of indigenous crops.

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​Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia

8/12/2022

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​​Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia

​One of the earliest areas in the world to develop farming was Mesopotamia. The name Mesopotamia means "the land between two rivers." These are the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Mesopotamia was located in present day Iraq and the earliest evidence of early agriculture was in Jarmo in the Kurdish Hills,
​The southern part of Mesopotamia known as Sumeria, was arid and received very little rain. The Sumerians began to improve the land by irrigating it. Initially they practised basin irrigation, where they allowed the rivers to flood the plain and deposit fertile silt on the land. Agriculture was thus practised on the silt. Later, canals were dug to channel water into the fields whereas dykes were constructed to prevent further flooding of the felds.
​The Sumerians later invented the shadoof that was used to draw water from the rivers. The water was then poured into the canals and used to irrigate the fields, see figure 3.4. These inventions increased the area that was cultivated. They also invented clay vessels and woven baskets for the storage of their poduce.
By 5000 BC agriculture had become one of the most important economic activities in Mesopotamia. The people were mixed farmers who mainly grew grains like wheat and barley, but they also grew figs, flax, olives, vines and vegetables. In addition, they kept cattle, ducks, donkeys, goats, horses, geese, sheep and pigs.

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Impact of Early Agriculture in Egypt

8/12/2022

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Impact of Early Agriculture in Egypt

  1. There was increased production, hence food supply was regular.
  2. Sufficient and nutritional foods led to increase in population.
  3. Surplus agricultural production resulted to trade, e.g., food was exchanged with pots and tools.
  4. There was invention of writing, arithmetic and geometry due to the need to keep records. The writings were referred to as Hieroglyphics.
  5. Shadoof irrigation methods were developed that put more land into use.
  6. Urban centres emerged, e.g., Memphis, Thebes.
  7. Farmers settled more permanently and improved their living standards.
  8. Religion developed, e.g., god was associated with farming, offering to gods was practised.
  9. As a result of the agriculture practised along the banks of the Nile, people settled there. Those settlements grew in size and became urban centres within the ancient Egyptian Kingdom.

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​Factors that led to Early Agriculture in Egypt

8/12/2022

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​Factors that led to Early Agriculture in Egypt

  1. Availability of fertile soil (silt) along the banks of the Nile. This was brought about by the annual flooding of the river.
  2. Availability of water that was used for irrigation which was drawn from the Nile.
  3. Inventions such as the shadoof led to increased agricultural production as it made the farmers work easier.
  4. Other inventions, e.g., bronze hoes that were more durable than the previous ones made from wood.
  5. The invention of the ox-drawn plough made it possible to cultivate larger fields faster and more efficiently and this led to an increase in food production.
  6. Existence of indigenous crops, e.g., wheat and barley, and animals like the goats.
  7. Able leadership of the Pharaohs who encouraged agriculture.
  8. High demand for food from the rising urban population.

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Early Agriculture in Egypt

8/12/2022

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​Early Agriculture in Egypt

​Egypt was the first country in Africa where techniques of food production spread. Agriculture in Egypt was practised along the banks of River Nile. The waters of the Nile deposited the silt that it had carried from the Ethiopian and East African highlands into Egypt. The early Egyptians drained the water that caused the silt to be swampy and this way created their earliest farms. 
​Since Egypt was arid, they dug canals from the Nile to direct the water to their farms during the dry season. Thus canal irrigation replaced basin irrigation. This was followed by the invention of the shadoof. The shadoof invention consisted of a long pole that swung up and down between two supporting posts. 
​A bucket was hung at one end and a heavy weight attached to the other end. The bucket would be filled with water from the river which was then poured into the canal. The use of the shadoof made two harvests in a year possible.
The Egyptian farmers grew wheat, barley, beans, cucumbers, figs, lentils, onions, grapes, dates and flax. They were mixed farmers as they also reared cattle, sheep, goats, chicken, ducks, geese and bees. It is from Egypt that agriculture spread to the rest of Africa.

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Factors for Domestication of Crops and Animals

8/12/2022

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​Factors for Domestication of Crops and Animals

There are a number of factors that made it necessary for human beings to discover agriculture. These were:
  • There were climatic changes that caused the animals to migrate farther from their previous locations.
  • Due to an increase in human population, the natural environment could not provide adequate food. Thus, there was a need for a regular supply of food.
  • People and animals competed for food leading to scarcity of food. This forced people adopt cultivation.
  • Similarly, over hunting on the part of man depleted the stocks of animals that he could rely on for food.
  • Natural disasters such as floods or forest fires would kill the animals and vegetation making it necessary for human beings to domesticate plants and animals.
  • Hunting and gathering had become an insecure source of food as man would occasionally return empty handed having failed to catch game. Figure 3.1 shows some of the areas along the Nile Valley where early agriculture was practised.
  • Hunting as well as gathering would sometimes be hindered by unfavourable weather conditions, e.g., snow or rain that would make it uncomfortable for man to go and hunt.
  • Hunting and gathering was tiring and streneous due to the constant movement that was required as man followed the animals during their migration.
  • Besides food, man also domesticated animals and crops because of their economic value. For instance, animals provided him with clothing, i.e., from their hides and skins.
  • Man domesticated animals for other purposes like their use in transport. Some animals like the dog assisted him in hunting and provided him with security.

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The Beginning of Crop Growing

8/12/2022

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​The Beginning of Crop Growing

​​Agriculture is the cultivation of crops to satisfy human needs. But popular use of agriculture now includes animal husbandry (keeping of animals) for products such as meat, milk, butter and eggs as well as bee- keeping and fish farming.
The feeding of world population depends on agriculture. The type of agriculture practised in any region of the world depends on climate, availability of labour and other resources. On learning to produce food, man became even more settled.

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The Beginning of Domestication of Animals

8/12/2022

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​The Beginning of Domestication of Animals

​​The development of domestication of animals had its origin in some of the regions of earliest civilisations. That was about 10,000 years ago.
​Before man learnt to domesticate animals, he was purely a hunter using the dog which he had managed to tame. He moved from place to place in all sorts of weather looking for animals to kill and gathering fruits, roots and other items. As time passed, man learnt to domesticate animals, he could keep them for food when weather conditions were not conducive for venturing out. As a result some of the animals like cows and goats provided man with milk. He did not see the need to kill these animals immediately. Furthermore, more animals like the sheep and cat became tamed.
​This attempt at taming meant that man had to feed them. The taming of animals made man have a more settled way of life because hunting was now limited. This was an important step to settlement, and some families could now live together in villages. Man also began wearing skins of the animals he had killed.
According to archaeological evidence, cattle, sheep and goats originated from South- West Asia. Greece, Crete, Algeria and Egypt are also credited with being the origin of cattle. 
The River Nile Valley where early agriculture was practised
The River Nile Valley where early agriculture was practised
​From North Africa cattle spread to central and southern Sahara. By 300 BC they had reached the area around Lake Turkana and had arrived in Southern Africa by 2000 BC The cat, guinea fowl and the ass were among the animals which originated from Africa.

​Benefits of Domesticating Animals

  1. For steady supply of food.
  2. Products like skin were used for clothing and beddings.
  3. Bones were used to make ornaments and needles.
  4. Animals like donkey, horses and oxen were used as a means of transport and for pulling ploughs.
  5. The dog gave man companionship and security.
  6. Animals were traded for other items.

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Origin of Agriculture

8/12/2022

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​Origin of Agriculture

​There are two theories which try to explain the origin of Agriculture. These are the independent and the diffusion theory.
​The independent theory suggests that Agriculture as an activity developed independently throughout the world as local conditions dictated.
​The diffusion theory states that agriculture started in the Middle East, i.e., in Mesopotamia from where it spread to other regions in the world.

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Development of Early Agriculture

8/12/2022

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​Definition of Agriculture

Agriculture is the growing of crops and the keeping of livestock. It is also called farming. The growing of crops is cultivation, while the keeping of livestock is pastoralism, or herding. This can also be referred to as animal husbandry and entails poultry keeping.
​In the course of the New Stone Age period, man's way of life changed from that of nomadic hunter-gatherer to sedentary agriculture. Domestication of animals and growing of crops became one of the most significant economic activities of man.

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EARLY MAN REVISION QUESTIONS

4/12/2022

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​Work to Do

  1. Explain three theories about the origin of man.
  2. Describe the stages through which man evolved and show the differences in man's physical features at each stage.
  3. Describe the way of life of early man during the Middle Stone Age period.
  4. What discoveries did early man make and of what importance were they to him?

    1. What do you understand by the term "archaeological site"? (b) Draw a map of East Africa and show the major archaeological sites.

​Suggested Activities

  • Hold a class discussion on the theories about the origin of man.
  • Organise a class visit to the National Museum or a place of archaeological importance and hold discussions with the curator about early man. Each student should write a report on the visit.

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​CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC PRACTICES OF EARLY MAN

4/12/2022

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​Cultural and Economic Practices of Early Man

​​Cultural practices depict the totality of man's way of life. Economic practices are the methods that man uses to exploit the environment for his well-being.
The evolution of man and his way of life can well be understood through the study of the Stone Age period. Through this study, we can understand events that have shaped and influenced man's life, these are:
  • Old Stone Age (lower palaeolithic): 3,000,000-200,000 years ago. The tools were still very crude.
  • Middle Stone Age (middle palaeolithic): 200,000 50,000 years ago. There was an attempt to refine the tools to suit specific jobs.
  • New Stone Age (upper palaeolithic): 5,000 - 2,500 years ago. Microlithic tools began to be fitted onto handles.

​The Old Stone Age (Lower-Palaeolithic)

​This period, also referred to as Early Stone Age, lasted approximately from 3,000,000 - 200,000 years ago, and saw important advances in the pre-historic culture of early man. These advances included:

​Weapons and Tools

​​The stone tools made by early man in the first phase of the Old Stone Age have been referred to as Oldowan or pebble tools. Some of these tools are shown in Figure below.
They were named Oldowan after Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania where they were first discovered. They were also called pebble tools because they were made from pebbles i.e., fairly large round stones. 
​Oldowan tools have been found widespread in South, Central and North Africa, suggesting that they were made and used only in Africa. The makers of Oldowan tools are believed to have been Homo habilis.
some stone tools by earlyman
some stone tools by earlyman
​​In the second phase of the Old Stone Age period, the stone tools man made have been called acheulian. These were named after Saint Acheul Valley in North France where they were first discovered. They first appeared in East Africa about 1.5 million years ago. They seem to have existed in some areas until 200.000 - 50.000 years ago.

​At Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, stone tools dating back to about 1.5 million years old have been discovered.
In Ethiopia, interesting tools and weapons which are more than one million years old have also been found at Hadar and Gona. and are among the earliest stone tools found in the world. These include scrapers and choppers or hand axe heads.

​They were used for digging up roots. skinning animals. and cutting and scrapping animal skins. Acheulian tools were made by a more improved tool-making technique whereby a core stone was flaked on both sides to produce a sharp pointed end and longer cutting edges on both sides. Acheulian tools Hand axe

Clothing

​The Old Stone Age period must have been much colder than it is now. Therefore, as a result, man must have had a much more hairy body than he has now. He also walked naked because he had not learned how to make clothes.

​Shelter

​The Old Stone Age people had not learnt to build houses. But research carried out in the Olduvai Gorge by Louis and Mary Leakey shows that on site DK 1, a semi-circular group of natural stones suggests a hiding place. The Old Stone Age people.slept in forests and on trees to avoid attacks by wild animals. They also used stone caves and rocks as shelter.

​Food

The Old Stone Age people ate raw meat for they had not discovered the art of making fire. Typha roots at one of Bed I sites at Olduvai Gorge, the presence of fig leaves at East Turkana show that early man brought back ​to his home base the plant foods he ate. In addition to this, he ate birds, eggs and insects which he gathered and collected.

Hunting

​In addition to gathering and collecting, the Old Stone Age man also hunted wild animals. ~ Hunting was a group activity. Man hunted by chasing the wild animals. He also trapped and caught wild animals around the watering points. 
​After successfully catching his prey, man then skinned the carcass and ate the meat raw. There was a bit of specialisation during this period whereby men hunted while women spent most of the day collecting wild fruits and berries. This life required strong people.

​Communication

​Man still used a crude form of communication, based on gestures, growling and whistling.

​The Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic)

​This period lasted between 200,00-50,000 years ago. Man changed his life by improving his weapons, building better shelter and inventing fire. Life became easier than during the Old Stone Age period.

​Tools and Weapons

​The Middle Stone Age period is associated with Homo erectus. Throughout Africa and the world where this hominid is thought to have lived, there was a general attempt to try and improve the tools using the Levallois method or technique. 
​This entailed the use of cores of smaller stones to hit bigger ones in a special way in order to remove the relatively thin sharp pieces called flakes and blade forms. Man then trimmed the flakes and ades into a variety of daggers, scrappers, pear points, choppers, etc. 
​In many areas of East and CentralAfrica, there is evidence of improved weapons and the attempts to make them smaller, thinner, lighter, sharper and therefore more convenient. 
​In East Africa in particular, there was an attempt to make tools from more than one material. Wood and stone for instance could be used together.

​The Invention and use of Fire

​One of the most important developments in the Middle Stone Age period was that man had learned to make and use fire. Clear traces of fire have been discovered in places where man lived. In South Africa, there are pre-historic sites where hearths of ash and charcoal have been found. Early man must have lighted this fire by rubbing two sticks against one another or striking one stone on another as shown in figure below.
The invention of fire changed man's life in the following ways:
  • ​Man could warm himself during the cold nights.
  • The flames of the fire could give him light at night. 
  • The fire could provide him with protection by frightening and keeping dangerous animals away.
  • Man also used fire to harden the tips of his tools such as spear shafts and fishing harpoons.
  • Fire was also used in hunting to chase and scare wild animals towards muddy lakes, swamps and even over steep cliffs. 
  • Man also used fire to cook and soften his food and also remove poison from the vegetables he ate hence improving its flavour and nutritional value.

​Shelter (Housing)

​​During the Middle Stone Age period, man had started to have particular places where he took his game after hunting and where his family could retire and rest after the day's activities. This was an artificial shelter. An example of such home has been found at Orangia in Southern Africa. 
​The open site has at least six semi-circular stone structures two to three metres across and all open to the west. The ground inside each shelter had been scooped out to form a hollow perhaps for sleeping. A similar dwelling place was found at Olorgesailie pre-historic site near Magadi in Kenya.
Later on, man started to live in caves and rock shelters. At night they kept fires burning at the entrance to scare away wild animals. Examples of such caves are Matupi cave in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Gamble's cave near Lake Nakuru in Kenya and Dar es Soltan in Southern Africa.

​Food

​​During the Middle Stone Age period, man continued hunting wild animals for meat which was his main food. His methods ​of hunting had now improved because he had better, lighter, sharper and highly specialised weapons like knives, spears and choppers.
 It is likely that in the equatorial areas, very large animals like elephants and hippopotamuses were preferred for meat while in the grasslands the grazing antelopes were the main sources of meat. With the invention of fire. man could now cook the meat. 
​This did not only soften it but also added flavour. Cooking also neutralised the poison in some raw vegetables that man ate. In addition to meat, man ate fruits, birds eggs, insects and fish.

​Clothing

​By this time man had learnt to wear animal skins. He scraped the skins clean to make cloaks out of them. He also made shells and necklaces and painted his body with red ochre and oil.

​Communication

​Man improved on gestures and growling and began to use clicks and grunts.

​The New Stone Age (Neolithic)

​This period, also referred to as Late Stone Age, is associated with Homo sapiens and is thought to have lasted roughly between 5,000 to 2,500 years ago. In this period there was a big change in many aspects of man's way of life. 
​Socially, politically and economically, man made great advances. He changed and improved the way he lived with his fellow men. Technologically he improved and invented new tools.

​Tools and Weapons

​​In the Old Stone Age period, man merely chipped pieces of stone into the required shape. But in the Late Stone Age further improvement of Stone Age technology was noted. This period is marked by a type of tools called microliths. Microliths were very small tools, sometimes less than a centimetre in length. It was found that by pressing one stone against another, a tool maker could flake off small pieces of microliths.
 Microliths were not used as tools alone. They were fitted or glued into wood and bone handles and used together as tools. In the Late Stone Age, emphasis was on "composite tools". These tools were made by fixing several microliths together in wooden or bone shafts. Examples of such tools include fishing harpoons, saw blades, arrow heads, sickles, bone needles for sewing skin cloths, bows and arrows. 
​Examples of these microlith tools made by New Stone Age Neolithic) man are found in places such as the Qadan site in the Nile Valley.

​Settlements

​​The tremendous technological advances enabled man to settle in villages, perhaps of about 1,000 members. As man began leading a settled life, several cultural practices developed. Man began to appreciate the need for bodily decorations. Man prepared red ochre in stone bowls and used it as body make-up. 
In addition, he decorated himself with beads made of seeds, bone and ostrich egg shells. The use of rock shelters became more widespread during this time. Man decorated them with paintings of animals, hunting scenes and other designs.

​Art and Crafts

​The New Stone Age Neolithic man also made efforts to invent and develop simple arts and crafts. Man learned how to make rough baskets, how to spin and weave flax and other natural fibre, and how to make pots by shaping clay and baking it hard using fire.

​Rock Art

​He also painted pictures of the animals he hunted like elephants and reindeer on walls of caves. The best examples of this in Africa are found in Kondoa and Singida in North Central Tanzania and in Southern Africa at Apollo II cave.
It is likely that these pre-historic men thought that painting pictures of the animals they hunted would give their hunts greater success. By drawing pictures of wild animals, man believed that he could magically have a controlling power over his prey. Occasionally, he drew arrows piercing the animals he hoped to kill. Cave paintings also showed a keen observation of animal life.
Picture

​Communication

​The New Stone Age man developed a rudimentary form of spoken language with sign language being predominant.

​Religion and Government 

​Another important cultural development was the beginning of religion and government. The first aspect of religion was the performance of rites and ceremonies by man probably with a belief that these rites and ceremonies could influence natural forces such as rain, drought and even death which were the main threats to man's life. ​
​Examples of the development of religious practices are found at Njoro River cave and Hyrax Hill in Kenya. Here cremated remains of human beings buried with some of their tools and possessions have been found. This shows that the Late Stone Age man was religious and believed in life after death.
​The New Stone Age paved way for the Iron Age. In some regions, some form of the two co-existed as iron-ore was not universally available. Gradually iron- working revolutionised agriculture and industry.
​In conclusion, the cultural development of the Stone Age man from the period of Australopithecus was rough and long. He had started with crude and rough stone tools and improved and perfected them into lighter, and sharper tools and then invented fire. 
During the New Stone Age period and after, man had developed smaller and sharper microlith tools and started moving towards a settled agricultural life; planting crops and domesticating animals. This organised systems led to the emergency of government and laws.

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Stages through which Man Evolved

4/12/2022

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​Stages through which Man Evolved

​Archaeological studies show that man evolved through various stages. At each stage man developed certain physical and cultural features. The following are the stages of the evolution of man.

​Aegyptopithecus

​The probable earliest ancestor of man was an ape-like creature whose skull was discovered in the Faiyum Valley in Egypt. This creature was herbivorous. It lived about 33 million years ago.
Features:
  1. Walked on four limbs.
  2. Had a tail.
  3. Weighed four kilograms.

​Dryopithecus Africanus (Proconsul)

The skull was discovered on Rusinga Island in Lake Victoria in 1948. It resembled a chimpanzee. It lived about 25 million years ago.
Features
  1. Had long teeth.
  2. Smooth forehead.
  3. Projecting face

​Kenyapithecus (Ramapithecus)

Also known as the grassland ape, Kenyapithecus lived between 15 million and 7 million years ago. Its remains were first discovered at Fort Ternan, near Kericho in 1961. It was more man-like than other earlier ape. Other discoveries have been made at Samburu Hills, Lake Baringo and Lake Turkana basins.
Features
  • Had small teeth.
  • Occasionally walked on two legs.
  • Weighed between 18 and 36 kilograms. 
  • Had a larger brain.

​Australopithecines

​Between four and two and a half million years ago, two varieties of small ape-like men came into existence in Southern and Eastern Africa.
These creatures are also referred to as Southern ape-men because their remains were first discovered in Southern Africa at Taung near Kimberley in 1924. 
​Similar fossils of a hominid belonging to the Australopithecus genius have been found scattered throughout Eastern Africa at such pre-historic sites as Olduvai Gorge and Lake Natron in Tanzania.
​Australopithecus used the stone tools he made for defence and to get food. They used sticks and pebble tools to kill small animals for food. They lived in small hunting camps ​near water bodies and led a nomadic life often migrating following the game they hunted. Hunting was the chief process which set man on the evolutionary path that was to lead to his dominance over all other animals.
The revolutionary stages of man
The revolutionary stages of man

​Species of Australopithecines

  • Australopithecus anamensis: This is the latest fossil found at Kanapoi and Alia Bay (on the south western and eastern sides of Lake Turkana) by Dr Mary Leakey, Dr Allan Walker and four fos hunters in the Hominid Gang. The fossil remains, a lower jaw, was given the name Australopithecus anamensis. It is believed to be the oldest Australopithecus, with an age of 4 million years.
  • Australopithecus afarensis: This lived between 4 and 3 million years ago. This name is derived from Afar Depression in Ethiopia, where the remains were found. Other remains were found at Laetoli in Tanzania and Tugen Hills in Kenya.
  • Australopithecus africanus (or A. gracillis): He lived between 3 and 2.5 million years ago.
  • Australopithecus robustus: This was the biggest and most recent. He lived between 2 and 1.5 million years ago in South Africa.
  • Australopithecus boisei: The Eastern African form of the Australopithecus robustus was named Australopithecus boisei. In 1986. a 2.5 million-year old skull of this primate was discovered near Lake Turkana.

​Features of the Australopithecines

  1. Had an upright posture as he walked on two legs.
  2. Had hairy body to keep him warm.
  3. Was short in stature with a small slender body of about four feet tall.
  4. Was strongly built with heavy shoulders. 
  5. Had a large brain capacity of about 500 cc.
  6. Had a large face with a low forehead and stereo-scopic vision.
  7. Had large jaws and teeth.
  8. Weighed between thirty to sixty eight kilograms.

​Homo Habilis

​​At Olduvai Gorge where Mrs Mary Leakey found the Zinjanthropus skull, another of her sons, Jonathan Leakey, found the skull fragments of a very young hominid. The pieces were stuck together to form the back part of the head. Later a lower jaw and the bones of a hand were found. 
​Dr Leakey, convinced that this was a true ancestor of man, called the creature Homo habilis, meaning handy man', 'man with ability' or simply practical man'. Homo habilis thus became the first species of the genus Homo or man. Homo habilis had a bigger brain capacity (775 cc) compared to Australopithecus and was the first true man to make and use tools.
It is believed that both Homo habilis and Australopithecus lived in Africa about one and three quarter million years ago. But Australopithecus then disappeared giving way to new people who had bigger brains. Homo habilis represents a stage of human evolution at which the brain and the hands were beginning to work in closer conjunction.

​Features of Homo Habilis

  1. Large brain capacity of about 775 cc.
  2. Bigger body stature of about 5 feet tall. Well developed thumb like that of modern man.
  3. Shape of face and skull like that of modern man.
  4. Teeth like those of modern man.
  5. Communicated using elementary speech.

​Homo Erectus

​The other hominid which lived in Africa about one million years ago is called Homo erectus, also referred to as the "upright man". As the name implies. Homo erectus. resembled the modern man especially the upright walking posture. Some fossils have been found of Homo erectus in Hadar in the Afar Triangle of Ethiopia, about 500 km north-east of Addis Ababa.
Homo erectus is thought to have been more intelligent than Australopithecus and Homo habilis. He had a much higher brain capacity of between 750 and 1000 cc. He could spend a long time chipping away at pieces of stone and bone to make the weapons and tools he needed. 
Evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in Africa, Europe and Asia and learnt to make many different and more refined tools like hand axes and later crude spears and arrow heads all from stone. It is believed that Homo erectus' knew how to use fire and had a primitive form of speech compared to any of his predecessors.

​Features of Homo Erectus

  1. Had an upright posture as he walked on twos.
  2. Had a large brain capacity of up to 1100 cc.
  3. Was highly intelligent as he made refined tools for specific purposes. e.g., hand axes and scrappers.
  4. Communicated well using speech. 
  5. Was large in stature of 5½ ft tall.
  6. Possessed a prominent brow ridge over the eyes.

Homo Sapiens

​Homo sapiens was divided into three species.

​Rhodesian Man

​The Rhodesian man was given this name because his skull was found in Zambia, then called Northern Rhodesia.
Rhodesian man was closer to the modern man than Homo erectus was.
  • He had straight legs and walked with long strides.
  • His brain was nearly the same size as that of modern man although he still looked like an ape, with great ridges over his eyes and a backward sloping forehead. Fossils have been found with cutting and scraping tools made of stone and others of bone which have been closely associated with the Rhodesian man. The below shows the skulls of the various hominids in different stages of evolution.
 Skulls of human species through evolutionary stages
Skulls of human species through evolutionary stages

​Neanderthal Man

​​Even closer to the modern man was a hominid called "Neanderthal Man", whose fossils were first found in Neander Valley in Europe. Traces of Neanderthal have been found scattered throughout Europe and the Near East.
  • ​Neanderthal man was heavily built with brow-ridges.
  • His cranial or brain capacity in some cases was larger than that of modern man.
  • He was quite intelligent and skilled in using his hands.
  • He ate meat from the animals like deer, pigs, wild sheep, and rhinoceros which he hunted.
​The oldest remains of the Neanderthal is dated about 250,000 years old. They consist of one nearly complete skull found in 1933 at Steinheim, Germany and three skull bones found in ancient gravels on the bank of River Thames and Swanscombe in England. More than 100 bones of this hominid have been excavated in South West France, Belgium, Gibraltar, Italy, Germany, former Yugoslavia, the middle East and North Africa.
They skillfully chipped stone tools and with them hunted a wide range of game. The arrangements of their bones found in excavations indicate ceremonial burials which show that they had developed religious practices.

​Cro-magnon

Cro-magnon lived in Western Europe about 20,000 years ago.
  • He was almost like modern man except that he was taller and had a thicker brow ridge.
  • He hunted, gathered and lived in caves and used fire.
  • He also painted ​pictures showing hunting scenes.
  • He used a variety of refined and delicate tools.

​Features of Homo Sapiens

  1. Had straight legs.
  2. Walked on twos with long strides.
  3. Had a large stature of about 6 feet tall.
  4. Had small teeth.
  5. Had a steep well rounded forehead. Had a large brain capacity of up to 1800 cc.
  6. Had heavy brows and ridges over the eyes. Was strongly built with broad shoulders.
  7. Had bushy eye-brows.

​Homo Sapiens Sapiens

​​Homo sapiens sapiens brings to the end the long struggle for early man to better himself and become civilised. This is when he made weapons and tools of flint stone, ivory, wood and horn. These tools were more refined than the earlier ones. 
​He caught fish with bone harpoons, cleaned animal hides with scrapers and made garments out of them with bone needles. Since he was intelligent and was thinking, he made fire and pots. The hunters captured and tamed animals. He began to grow crops, build huts and started leading a settled life. 
Figure below depicts the evolution stages man is thought to have gone through.

​Features of Homo Sapiens Sapiens

  1. High intellectual capacity with a large brain of over 2,000 cc.
  2. Spoke with well refined speech.
  3. Had small jaws and teeth.
  4. Was about 6 feet tall.
  5. Had well developed thumb for grasping objects.
Stages of man's Evolution
Stages of man's Evolution

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Why Africa is considered the cradle of man?

4/12/2022

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​Why Africa is considered the cradle of man?

Africa is considered the cradle of man because of the following factors:
  • There are numerous archaeological sites on the continent where early fossils that resemble man have been found.
  • The savanna grasslands provided space for early man to effectively hunt and gather his food.
  • The tropical climate was suitable for early man's existence for it was warm throughout the year.
  • There were many all-season rivers that provided fresh water and trapping for wild animals.
  • Geographically Africa was at the centre of the Pangea which made it possible for all early ape-like creatures to move to other regions during the continental drift.

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Archaeological Sites in East Africa

4/12/2022

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​Archaeological Sites in East Africa

Among the most important pre-historic sites in Kenya are: 
  1. Kariandusi
  2. Olorgesailie Koobi Fora
  3. Kanapoi
  4. Alia Bay
  5. Lokalelei.

In Tanzania there are:
  1. Olduvai Gorge Sites located in the Rift Valley basin
  2. Peninj
  3. Laetoli.

​Some of the important sites outside East Africa are Omo Valley and Hadar in Ethiopia, and the South Africa limestone cave sites of Skerkfontein, Kromdraai, Swartkrans and Maka Pansgat.
locations of the major and smaller hominid sites in East Africa
locations of the major and smaller hominid sites in East Africa

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Origin of Man

4/12/2022

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Origin of Man

Among all living creatures, man is unique because of his high level of thinking. This is one reason why the origin of man has been of great interest to scholars for ages. There are three theories which explain the origin of man. These are:

​Oral Traditions

​Throughout the ages, individuals, communities and peoples have tried to explain how they came into existence. This explanation is given through the oral traditions, for example, in myths and legends. The Agikuyu believe that Ngai (God) appeared and created their ancestors, Gikuyu and Mumbi at Mukurwe wa Gathanga. The Maasai believe that their ancestors were dropped by Enkai (God) from the sky.

​The Creation Theory

​This is explained in various Holy Books, e.g., the Bible and the Koran. In the book of Genesis, it is written that God created the universe and all the living creatures, including man, in six days. God created man and woman in his own image. He blessed them and told them to reproduce and fill the earth. He gave them authority to control the earth in all ways.

​The Evolution Theory

The evolution theory was put forward by Charles Darwin in 1859. In his book, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, he argues that plants and animals evolved from simple life forms that transformed or changed slowly over millions of years through;
  • Mutation
  • Natural selection
  • Environmental adaptation

​Mutation

​Is an abrupt change in the form of a living thing as dictated by the climate or the genetic components of the living thing involved.

​Natural selection

​Is an instinct by which the stronger species out-compete the weaker ones for resources.

Environmental adaptation

Follows after the first two where the surviving species isolate themselves from others as they adapt to the new environment. According to the evolution theory, human beings and primates (monkeys, gorillas and chimpanzees) had a common ancestor. 
​Man then developed over millions of years through evolution. During this evolutionary period, certain creatures (hominids) who were more man-like than ape-like developed. The term hominids refers to man and his ape- like ancestors. 
​The increasing discoveries of fossil remains of the pre-historic man by archaeologists, especially his skull, bones and the tools he made and used. have made the theory of evolution more acceptable over the years.

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