Rise of African Nationalism

​POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS AND MOVEMENTS AFTER 1945.

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​Factors that hastened political development in Kenya after 1945.

1. The Acquisition of western education by many Africans by 1945 which enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully and to understand political developments outside Kenya.
2. The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. Moreover, the colonial government failed to reward African ex-soldiers to embitter them more.
3. The change of government from Conservative to Labour Party in Britain in 1946 stimulated a new attitude in Britain towards decolonization. Africans in Kenya took advantage of this attitude.
4. The granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 aroused great confidence among Africans in Kenya to also clamour for their own independence.
5. The rise of Pan-Africanism in Africa after the 1945 Manchester conference contributed to the new demands for political independence in Kenya.
6. The formation of the UNO and the pressure it exerted on the European powers to decolonize helped the Kenyans in their course.
7. The emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as super powers in the world contributed to the decolonization process. USA was keen to see Britain and France grant independence to their subjects in the world in order to secure new markets.
8. The signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt which demanded that when the WWII ended, all subject peoples should enjoy the right to self-determination.
9. The costs incurred by the European nations during WW2 made their taxpayers become reluctant to raise any more funds for colonial expenditures.

​Characteristics of political parties formed after 1945.

1. They had a national outlook as members were drawn from different ethnic groups
2. Their main objectives was to fight for independence
3. Educated elites led them
4. They had a large membership.
5. They demanded for fair taxation for Africans.
6. They all demanded for improved conditions for African workers.
7. They all demanded for the return of alienated land. 

​Kenya African Study Union

When Eliud Mathu was nominated to the Legco on 10th October 1944, a number of well educated Africans led by Francis Khamisi agreed to form Kenya African Union (KAU) with the following objectives;

1. To assist Mathu in his new task as the first African nominated to the LEGCO.
2. To create a Multi-ethnic political grouping representing the interests and constitutional rights of all Africans effectively.
3. To advocate for more constitutional reforms for Africans.
4. To demand for better living and working conditions. 

The interim officials were Harry Thuku (chairman), Francis Khamisi (Secretary) and Albert Owino (treasurer). Other officials were James Gichuru, John Kebaso, Simeon Mulandi, Harry ole Nangurai, S.0. Josiah, F.M. Ng’anga, Jimmy Jeremiah, J.D. Otiende and S.D. Jakay. 

Two weeks after its formation, the governor ordered its officials to change its name to the Kenya African Study Union as it was meant to help Mathu in studying African problems.

In January 1945, James Gichuru became the president of KASU after Harry Thuku resigned, being unable to cope with radicalism in the union. 

Under Gichuru, KASU published a newspaper - Sauti ya Mwafrika that concentrated on African grievances and the proposed East African Federation which they opposed. 

The organization rejected proposals to give more powers to European members in the Executive council. They refused to accept a European dominated government of the East African Federation. 
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Later in 1946 on KASU changed its name to KAU feeling that the former name was inappropriate.

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​Kenya African Union

Formed in February 1946, the main demands of KAU were;

1. They protested against inadequate African representation in the LEGCO.
2. They protested against the lack of Participation of Africans in the governance of Kenya. They even demanded for Self-government for Africans.
3. They were against the continued existence of the Kipande System and forced labour.
4. They demanded improvement of the African working conditions with better wages equal to what was paid to other races.
5. They demanded an end to Land alienation and racial discrimination.
6. They demanded an end to Imposition of taxes.
7. They demanded compensation of ex-servicemen.
8. They were protesting against Lack of education opportunities for Africans. 

The return to Kenya by Kenyatta in 1946 marked the beginning of mass nationalism. On 1st June 1947, Kenyatta became president of KAU after Gichuru stepped down for him.

W.W.W. Awori was elected vice-president and Ambrose Ofafa and Muchohi Gikonyo were elected treasurer and secretary respectively. 

Kenyatta travelled widely in Kenya where he urged people to join KAU. After 1947 KAU began to face the problem of a standoff between Radicals like Fred Kubai and Paul Ngei who wanted to use force to acquire independence, and moderates like Kenyatta himself.

Radicals who included Bildad Kaggia took over the Nairobi branch of KAU. When the national delegates’ conference was held in 1951, Jomo Kenyatta retained presidency, J.D. Otiende became secretary General, PAUL Ngei –assistant SG and Ole Nangurai –Treasurer. 
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Between 1948 and 1950, KAU faced serious financial problems even failing to pay rent for its offices at the IBEA building. ​

​Other problems that faced KAU 

1. ​Kenyatta also appeared too busy to run the affairs of the party as he doubled up as the Principal of Githunguri TTC. 
2. The party also faced a lot of hostility from the colonial government and the white settlers. 
3. There were rampant ethnic divisions within the membership of KAU being complicated by the fact that the party appeared to be dominated by one ethnic group, the kikuyu. 
4. Majority of the African population, who were illiterate, lacked political awareness under could not understand the political efforts required of them. 

When the Mau Mau movement began, the Nairobi office of Kubai, J.M.Mungai and Kaggia worked closely with it. KAU continued to expand its membership in Kenya with Ramogi Achieng’ Oneko opening a branch in Kisumu in 1951, Johana Adala and Boaz Muha opened a branch in Maragoli and Muinga Chokwe opened one in Mombasa. 

In 1952, KAU rallies were banned outside Nairobi after a political meeting in Nyeri, attended by the leader of Mau Mau, Dedan Kimathi, which attracted over 25,000 people thus startling the government. 

When a state of emergency was declared in 1952, KAU leaders were arrested for being behind Mau Mau. Walter Odede became the acting president, Joseph Murumbi acting secretary and W.W.W.Awori-acting treasurer.

The acting official presented a 24-point memoranda to Oliver Lyttelton , secretary of state for colonies when he came to kenya during the emergency period, demanding the release of the Kapenguria six (Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kung’u Karumba, Bildad Kaggia, Achieng’ Oneko and Fred Kubai) Walter Odede, the acting president was late arrested on 9th march 1953 while Murumbi escaped to Bombay, India as KAU was banned on 8th June 1953.

​Achievements if KAU.

1. Party members especially from the Nairobi branch gave moral and material support to the Mau Mau freedom fighters.
2. The party provided guidance and political support to Eliud Mathu, the first African representative to the Legco.
3. The party laid the foundation for the growth of the Kenya African National Union that ushered in independence in Kenya.
4. ​Some of the members of the party were active members of Mau Mau. For example, Fred Kubai and Bildad Kaggia.

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THE MAU-MAU REBELLION 1951 - 60

Mau-Mau is an abbreviation which stands for “Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafirika Apate Uhuru” (meaning let the white man go back to Europe and the Africans regain Independence). 

Sometimes the movement was referred to as the ‘Land and Freedom Army’ and the Anake-a-Forty. 

Sometime in the late 1940s the General Council of the banned Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) began to make preparations for a campaign of civil disobedience involving all of the Kikuyu in order to protest the land issue. The members of this initiative were bound together through oath. The rituals obliged the oath taker to fight and defend themselves from Europeans. 

In These oath rituals, There were rumors about cannibalism, ritual zoophilia with goats, sexual orgies, ritual places decorated with intestines and goat eyes, and that oaths included promises to kill, dismember and burn settlers. 

The oaths were a cultural symbol of the solidarity that bound Kikuyu men, women and children in loyalty together in their opposition to the colonial government.

It also instilled courage and unity among people, 
Nonetheless, the British were scared by the oath, made taking the Mau Mau oath a capital offence.

​The British also screened Mau Mau suspects and forced them to take a 'cleansing oath', a strange instance of colonialism 'gone native'.

CAUSES OF THE MAU-MAU REBELLION

1. The unemployment of the ex-soldiers who had been promised jobs after the World War II, but instead were made porters on European-estates. Similarly, people were retrenched, traders pushed out to business by Asian retail trade monopoly and European settlers.
2. Africans, especially the Kikuyu, wanted their land returned. By 1948, 1.25 million Kikuyu were restricted to 2000 square miles (5,200 km²), while 30,000 settlers occupied 12,000 square miles (31,000 km²) fertile land. In the reserves Africans suffered from congestion, starvation and diseases like typhoid, cholera.
3. It was a reaction against the Kipande system. This was a method of identity cards imposed on Africans to restrict them from unnecessary movements.
4. The introduction of racial discrimination in Kenya. The Europeans equated the black colour with low intelligence, uncivilized, barbaric and a backward race. All the best hotels, restaurants, schools, recreational centres and most fertile soils in Kenya were reserved for the whites only.
5. Africans were fed up of heavy and harsh taxation by the Europeans. Failure to pay tax was punishable by taking away the land or even imprisonment. So the Africans were forced to go and work under harsh condition and for long hours, yet poorly paid.
6. The dominance of the economy by the Asian and white settlers. The Africans were not allowed to take part in meaningful business, were not given positive consideration in awarding jobs.
7. They also wanted to be exposed to the social services e.g. education. The white settlers frustrated the African efforts to set up schools even the few educated Africans were not employed in the civil service..
8. Africans feared a gradual destruction of their culture by the whites e.g. the missionaries were totally against the circumcision of women among the Kikuyu and the traditional view of twins.
9. Africans wanted a fair share in the administration of their country (Parliament). For a long time many Kenyans were excluded from decision making and political participation the whites and Asians in the Legislative Council did not represent their interests.
10. The return of Jomo Kenyatta in the 1950s’ after his studies in Europe, he came back with a wider vision to convince the Kenyans about their rights and they therefore united and rebelled.
11. The role of educated Kenyans who aware of their rights as citizens and in turn educated the rest about their place in society. This prompted them to rebel against the whites.
12. The colonial policy discouraged Africans from growing cash crops like coffee, tea, cotton, pyrethrum for fear of competition with the Africans who would grow rich and challenge the colonial administration.
13. Forced labour. Africans were obliged by colonial law to offer labour on the plantation this was to be done forcefully without offering any payments. This kind of new slavery inspired the occurrence of the Mau Mau rebellion.
14. Influence of the Second World War. Many Kenyans who participated in this war discovered the weakness of the white man and the loopholes in their systems of administration. These included General China, Dedan Kimathi among others who also acquired good military skills.
15. The move was a quest for constitutional reforms in Kenya. African political parties had been banned with impunity and their leaders like Harry Thuku, Muindi Mbingu and Mwambichi detained.
16. They were protesting colonial brutality especially the mistreatment of Africans on the white farms. Many Africans were killed at the slightest excuse like in the case of the upland Bacon Factory Massacre in September 1947.

Problems caused by presence of women in forests during mau mau wars.

1. Some women could not withstand the harsh forest conditions of torrential rains and bitter cold and constantly fell sick
2. Many women could not defend themselves against enemies and were therefore a burden to men.
3. Women would be extra mouths to feed, but would do very little useful things in return.
4. ​Occasionally, women could cause tension and conflict among male guerillas as the men competed for sexual favours from the small number of women.

CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE.
African representation to the Legco.

In 1944, Eliud Mathu, a former teacher at Alliance School, the first African was appointed to the LegCo. KAU’s demand for more representation in 1946 caused the appointment of Benaiah Ohanga as the second African to the LegCo. 
By 1948, there were four Africans in the LegCo compared to 11 Europeans, 5 Asians and 2 Arabs.  
Various commission reports made significant pointers to the fact that the British government had realized the need to involve Africans in the administration and need to reduce settler influence. For example;

1. The Report of the East African Royal Commission of 1955 proposed;
   1. An end of racial segregation.
   2. Increased involvement of Africans in the colonial administration
   3. Opening of the Kenya Highlands to all races.
2. The Swynnerton Plan of 1954 proposed the consolidation and registration of African land with a view to having better land management.
3. The report on African wages and the Lidbury Commission on Civil Service recommended better pay for African workers.

The Lyttelton Constitution.

In 1954, the British secretary for colonies visited Kenya in the wake of the Mau Mau Uprising and made the following constitutional proposals; 

1. A multi- racial Council of Ministers to replace the executive council, which would include one African (B.A. Ohanga, minister for community development and African affairs), two Asians and three Europeans. For the first time, Africans were represented with members with executive powers.
2. Lifting the ban on African political Associations. This was done in 1955 though only Africans were allowed to form local (district –based) political organizations. Tom Mboya formed the Nairobi People’s convention Party while D. Mwanyumba formed the Taita African Democratic Union. John Kebaso formed the Abagusii Association, Argwings Kodhek formed the Kenya National Congress and John Keen the Maasai Front.
3. Africans were able to take part in elections of 1957. /it proposed multi-racial elections. However, other than race-pegged rules for participation in the 1956/57 elections, Voting qualification for Africans were based on income, property and education
4. Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO. In march 1957, the African elections to the Legco were held and Tom Mboya(Nairobi), Masinde Muliro( Northern Nyanza), Oginga Odinga(Central Nyanza), Lawrence Ogunda(south Nyanza), Ronald Ngala( Coast ), Daniel Arap Moi( Rift Valley), James Miumi(Ukambani) and Bernard Mate (central) were elected. 

The elected Africans formed the African Elected Members Organization (AEMO) with Odinga as chairman and Mboya as secretary.

Demands of AEMO after formation.

1. They contested the fewer African positions in the LegCo by condemning the Lyttelton constitution. While elected members were 29, nominated members were 30, majority of who were Europeans. 
2. They protested the rigid voter qualification requirements imposed on Africans and demanded that every African of 21 years and above be allowed to vote, regardless of education or income.
3. They demanded that registration of voters be done on a common roll.
4. They called for the end of a State of Emergency.

Role played by AEMO in the struggle for independence up to 1963.

1. They formed pressure groups to demand for greater political rights for Africans. e.g., formation of AEMO.
2. They formed the core team, which pressurized for independence.
3. They made known the grievances of Africans in International Fora.
4. They networked with other African nationalists elsewhere e.g. in Ghana and Nigeria to hasten achievement of independence in Kenya.
5. They fought for the release of detained nationalists e.g. Kenyatta.
6. They formed he national political parties e.g. KANU and KADU, which led the country to independence.
7. They educated and created awareness among the masses about the nationalists struggle.
8. They took part in the formulation of the independence constitution.

The Lennox-Boyd Constitution.

In 1958, Sir Allan Lennox- Boyd, who had succeeded Oliver Lyttelton as secretary State for Colonies visited Kenya and made the following constitutional proposals;

1. An increase by six LegCo Seats for Africans to bring their total representation to 14 seats.
2. A special membership in the LegCo, with four members from each race, who were to elected by other members of the LegCo. 
3. An increase of the number of African ministers to two. 

AEMO members rejected the Lennox-Boyd proposals saying they still favoured white monopoly in the colony especially the specially elected membership to LegCo. AEMO also called for the unconditional release of Jomo Kenyatta. They even boycotted the Legco from 1958 to 1959 when a new constitutional conference was promised.
Acted of Betrayal became evident among Africans when Musa Amalemba and Wanyutu Waweru accepted the special seats appointment and even Amalemba went ahead to appointed the second African Minister for Housing in 1958.
 Other developments in 1959 included;

• The White moderates led by Michael Blundell (who resigned as minister of agriculture) formed the New Party of Kenya (NPK). He was backed by 46 non-African members of the LegCo for his ideas of multi-racialism. 
• The white extremists led by Captain Briggs formed the United Party (UP) demanding for the abolishing of the LegCo and replacing it with regional assemblies. This was aimed at preserving the white highlands as one regional assembly for European benefits. 
• Increased divisions on AEMO between radicals and moderates .Ngala, Moi, Mate, Towett and Nyagah resigned from AEMO to form the Kenya National Party (KNP) advocating multi-racialism. This party was interestingly joined by all Arab and Asian members. 
• The radicals led by Mboya, Odinga and Gikonyo Kiano formed the Kenya Independent Movement (KIM) that was exclusively for African membership. They demanded convening of a full constitutional conference to discuss Kenya’s future and release of Jomo Kenyatta.

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The Lancaster House Conferences.

​The Conferences were called to iron out the differences that arose out of the fact that both radical Europeans and AEMO members opposed multi-racialism.

The First Lancaster House Conference (1960)

The conference was convened by Ian MacLeod, the secretary of state for colonies. it was attended by all members of the LegCo.. The African team was led by Ronald Ngala and Tom Mboya was the secretary. 
The conference came up with the following compromise decisions;

1. The 12 elective seats In the LegCo would remain intact.
2. There were to 33 open seats in the LegCo, which were to be vied for on a common roll.
3. Another 20 seats would be reserved – 10 of these for Europeans, 8 for Asians and 2 for Arabs.
4. The composition of the Council of Ministers was to be altered to incorporate 4 Africans, 3 Europeans and 1 Asian.
5. The conference authorized the formation of countrywide political parties for Africans. KANU and KANU were formed.

The Lancaster conference however failed to entirely please both Africans and the settlers. Some settlers, finding the new turn events so tough began to sell their property and leave Kenya. Africans though feeling that they had not been given a responsive government, accepted ministerial positions as follows;

1. Ronald Ngala- Minister for Labour, Social Security and Adult Education.
2. Julius Gikonyo Kiano- Minister for Commerce and Industry.
3. Musa Amalemba- Minister for Housing, Common Services, Probation and Approved Schools.
4. James Nzaui Miumi- Minister for Health and Welfare.

Out of fear of political domination by the big tribes the following new alliances were formed;

1. The Kalenjin Political Alliance of Taita Towett.
2. The Coast African Political Union of Ronald Ngala.
3. The Kenya African People’s Party of Masinde Muliro. 

In the 1961 elections KANU won but refused to form government demanding release of Kenyatta. KADU was invited by the governor, Patrick Renson to form a coalition government with Europeans and Asians. 
When Kenyatta came on 21st August 1961, Kariuki Njiiri offered his Murang’a seat to Kenyatta to enable him join LegCo.

The second Lancaster conference (1962)

The main aim of this conference, called by the then secretary for colonies, Reginald Maulding was to draft the independence constitution acceptable to the two main parties KADU and KANU. It also aimed at reconciling the differences between the two parties. 
KANU delegation was led by Jomo Kenyatta while Ngala led the KADU group. KANU conceded many KADU grounds to enable success of the negotiations.

Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya.

1. The independence constitution provided for a regional/majimbo government with each region having a regional assembly and president
2. It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives/upper house and lower house.
3. The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General.
4. The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government.
5. It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individual’s rights. 

In the elections of 1963, KANU won with 73 seats against KADU’s 31, APP’s 8. Jomo Kenyatta became the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. 
On 12 December, Kenya attained full independence. On 12th December 1964, Kenya became a republic with Kenyatta becoming an executive president.

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