Political organization of the Mwene Mutapa Empire

30/12/2019

ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES.

Despite the high amount of decentralization of African communities in the 19th century, there existed a few who were centralized. For example, Buganda, Ethiopia, Buganda, Asante, Mandinka, Ndebele and shona among others

THE SHONA

The Shona were a Bantu-speaking people who comprised the Rozwi, Kore kore, Zezuru and Manyika sub-groups. The first stone buildings in Zimbabwe are believed to have been the work of the Shona. Their capital was at Mapungubwe, south of the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashi rivers.

About 1450 AD, the Rozwi Groups gained dominance and established a centralized political system. They established the Mwene Mutapa Empire which ruled until the time of the Ngoni invasion in the 1830s.

Political organization of the Mwene Mutapa Empire

The emperor was the head of the state and government. Succession of authority was hereditary. Important emperors included Chikura, Nyatsimba, Mutota and Matope. Religion played a role in government and united people. The emperor was a semi-divine religious leader, a military leader and the chief priest. He was the only one who could communicate with the spirits of the ancestors. It was believed that when Mwene Mutapa died, he became a Mudzimu and automatically qualified to be worshipped as a national ancestral spirit.

The ancestral spirits (Vadzimu) communicated people’s problems to god. Religion also influenced laws.
The priests were used as spies and link between the emperor and the people.

Another unifying factor in the kingdom was the royal fire. It was from the continuous fire that each vassal chief carried a flame to his chiefdom that he kept burning as a symbol of national unity.

The empire was divided into provinces namely Guruhaswa, Mbire, Utere, Banua, and Manyika each headed by a lesser chief. The most important chiefs in the empire sent their sons, with tribute in form of cattle, gold, slaves and ivory, each year to pay homage to the Mwene Mutapa as goodwill ambassadors.

There was a standing army of warriors which was used for defence and expansion of the kingdom. Revenue from trade was used to run the army and sustain the empire.

The position of importance held by Mwene Mutapa led to the creation of a complex Style of administration around him.

The government officials included the court steward, treasurer, commander-in-chief of the army and Mbokurumme (king’s sister-in-law). Others were the queen mother, the emperor’s sister and nine principal wives, the doorkeeper and the chief cook and head drummer. At the lower level were the lesser chiefs who paid tribute to the king by providing cattle, labour and agricultural produce.

Economic organization of the Shona

The Shona country enjoyed ample rainfall with fertile soils thus enabling them to engage in the following economic activities;

The Shona were mixed farmers who cultivated crops and reared animals. Among the agricultural produce were corn, millet, ground nuts, beans, watermelons, tomatoes, fruits and cabbages.
The Shona practiced trade, specifically long distance trade between them and the Arabs and Waswahili at sofala. They gave Gold and ivory for cotton cloths, glassware, copper items, guns, daggers and knives.
They were skillful hunters. They hunted elephants for their ivory which was in great demand. They also gathered wild honey and wild fruits to supplement their diet.
The shona were skilled craftsmen who made articles like spears, hoes and knives. Others were goldsmiths who used gold to decorate. They also practiced cloth making from wild cotton and bark fibres.

Social organization of the Shona

Among the shona, Mwene Mutapa was regarded as a divine king and was therefore venerated. When he was well, the nation was also well.

The shona religion was based on the Mwari cult. They believed in the all powerful God, Mwari/Murungu. His worship was done through several priests who were mainly produced by the Rozwi clan.

The priests presided over religious functions in sacred places of worship, shrines where sacrifices were offered.

The shona believed in ancestral spirits. They had two kinds of spirits, Vadzimu or family spirits and Mhondoro or clan spirits. The spirits communicated though an intermediary, Svikiro, a departed family or clan spirit

The shona had a national spirit Chamiruka who settled clan disputes and also protected the people against injustice in the government.

The shona had a kinship system which was patrilineal (inheritance through the father) The shona were divided into clans whose names were coined from animals like leopard, monkey, elephant etc. it was a taboo to consume meat from such animals.

They were a polygamous community which was viewed as a means to enable the family to have enough members to provide labour.

The shona lived in stone buildings. Their skill in masonry is associated with the ruins of Mapungubwe found in Zimbabwe.

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Importance of studying History and Government

13/12/2019

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Importance of Studying History

It helps us to understand and appreciate our culture and respect other peoples values and cultures
By studying the past, we get to know what might happen in future
It helps to gain a wide range of educational skills
Appreciate the achievements and learn from the failures of mankind in the past.
Gives time and space of events
Develops a critical mind as we try to explain historical events
Utilizes historical record of events such as families, clashes and civil wars to prepare people to cope with, and avoid a repeat of such tragedies.
It instills in us a sense of patriotism and national pride
It fosters empathy
Comprehends the social, economic, and political developments our society
It helps us to be more knowledgeable as it documents information of varied nature
Prepares community for life
Provides intellectual fulfillment and interest to the learner
It is a career subject for those with professional commitment

Importance of studying government

It makes us know how laws are made and implemented
We also learn how development programmes are formulated and implemented
It helps us to know how the government raises and spends revenue
It helps us know our roles as citizens and the roles of leaders who govern us
We learn how power are vested in different organs of the government
Through the study of government we understand and appreciate the need for a government
It helps us appreciate the constitution and the process of making and reviewing laws and statues
It helps us understand our rights, responsibilities as well as the limitation within which we must operate for the well being of every member of the society.
It influences career choice

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ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA.

26/5/2019

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previously << CHAPTER 15: DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS

CAUSES OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR EAST AFRICA.

Factors that contributed to the scramble and partition of East Africa.

The rise of Nationalism in Europe. The Unification of Germany, after the Franco- Prussian war (1870-71) upset the balance of power in Europe and there was need to rebalance out through acquisition of colonies in Africa including east Africa. The Germans also felt that the only way their nation could gain recognition among other European powers was through securing colonial possession.
Strategic location of East Africa in relation to Egypt. Europeans were concerned with the source of the river Nile in East Africa and control of the Suez Canal. Therefore, the ownership of East Africa was crucial to the Egyptian affairs. East Africa, had, from the days of the Portuguese conquest in the 15th century, proved to be a strategic location for fresh supplies. That is why the Germans and the British competed for possessions in the region.
The need to speed up economic development of the European countries. The industrialized nations were rushing for colonies to tap raw materials to keep their factories running. There was also a popular believe that East Africa contained pockets of precious metals awaiting exploitation. They were also driven by the search for market for European produced goods. The Europeans were also looking for places to invest their capital.
The rise of Public opinion in Europe. There was growth of public support towards the acquisition of colonies. E.g., the Daily Press in London spoke well about acquiring colonies.
Social factors.

East Africa was to be occupied as a means of stamping out slave trade and replacing it with legitimate trade.
The Europeans were keen on spreading their culture to east Africa.
They wanted to protect their missionaries who were already operating in east Africa

ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA.

The process of Partition.

The Berlin conference failed to fully resolve the rivalry between the Germans and the British in East Africa. The activities of Karl Peters and Harry Johnstone for the Germans and the British respectively in the Mount Kilimanjaro region depicted intense rivalry which almost led to war. The two signed treaties with local chiefs as a way of legalizing their arbitrary declaration of their spheres of influence. Karl peters even declared german protectorate over Ungulu, Uzigua, Usagara and Ukami. These activities together with those of Sir William Mackinnon of the Imperial British East Africa Company became the immediate cause of the partition of east Africa.

The partition of East Africa was sealed through the following two treaties.

The Anglo-German Agreement of 1886.
The agreement facilitated peaceful settlement of the german and British claims on east Africa as follows;
- a) The Sultan was given the 16 KM (10mile) coastal strip from Vanga to Lamu. He also acquired islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, mafia, Lamu, pate and Towns like Lamu, Kisimayu, Mogadishu, Merca, and Brava.
- b) Germany acquired the coastline of Witu the region between river Umba in the North and river Ruvuma in the south.
- c) The British got the territory north of river Umba up to river Juba in the north.

However, the treaty failed to determine the western boundary, thus leaving Uganda up for grab to any power that got there first. Uganda therefore became a theatre of intense rivalry between Karl Peters who even secured a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga in 1890 and Fredrick Lugard who tried in vain to sign a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga. This tension is what led to the Heligoland Treaty of 1890.

Terms of the Heligoland Treaty of 1890.

a) Germany officially recognized Uganda as a British sphere of influence/protectorate.
b) Germany abandoned her claim over the territory of Witu for British in exchange for Heligoland island in the North sea
c) Germany accepted British protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba.
d) Germany acquired a strip of land on Lake Tanganyika from Britain and the Coastal region of Tanganyika from the Sultan of Zanzibar.
e) The Sultan of Zanzibar retained a 16km (10 miles) Coastal strip.
This treaty thus ended the scramble for and partition of East Africa.

BRITISH OCCUPATION OF KENYA

Methods used by the British to occupy Kenya.

a) Signing of treaties. The following treaties were signed either by the British or on behalf of the British to facilitate their occupation of Kenya;
- A treaty by Sir William Mackinnon and the Sultan of Zanzibar Barghash in 1887 which effectively put Zanzibar under the British for 50 years.
- The Maasai Agreements of 1904 and 1911 between Oloibon Lenana and the British
- The Anglo-Germany Treaties of 1886 and 1890.
b) Collaboration. The British collaborated with communities like the Wanga and Maasai who were later used as bases to extend British Authority over other areas.
c) Establishing operational bases. The British built Forts like Fort Smith (Kabete) and Fort Hall (Murang’a) to enhance their political control.
d) Use of company Rule. In the initial stages, due to the fear of the enormous costs of effective occupation and administration, the British mandated the IBEA. Company to administer the Kenyan protectorate.

The Imperial British East Africa Company of Sir William Mackinnon was given the royal charter in 1888 and thus had the following new powers;

a) Levying and collecting taxes and institute custom duties in the area.
b) Establishing political authority and Maintain of law and order in the British East Africa.
c) Promoting legitimate trade and Eradicate slave trade
d) Developing and civilizing the indigenous peoples with the assistance of the imperial consul based in Zanzibar.

Achievements of the IBEAC.

a) The company succeeded in quelling local aggression in the British spheres of influence from communities such as the Nandi, Maasai and Akamba.
b) The company established a series of Forts at Kibwezi, Machakos, Smith and Dagoretti, which laid the basis for colonial administration in Kenya.
c) The company improved transport and communication in the protectorate by pioneering road construction in Kenya. For example the Sclater’s Road between Kibwezi and Busia in 1894 which assisted in transportation of railway building materials.
d) The company succeeded in eradicating slavery to some extend and securing freedom for many slaves.
e) The company also developed a rubber industry along the coast and the interior.

Reasons why Britain used the IBEA Company to administer her possession.

Achievements of the IBEAC.

a) Absence of a clear policy on the administration of colonial possessions. This gave room to the use of the company to administer the colony.
b) The company could provide cheap administrative capital that Britain had failed to raise for colonial governance. The colonies were not yet economically viable
c) There was a problem of inadequate personnel to be used in the administration of the colonies.
d) I.B.E.A.Co’s long experience in the region. The company had invested heavily in east Africa, hence making its participation in the administration of the colony inevitable.

Why company rule had failed by 1895.

a) The region lacked strategic natural resources for export thus making the IBEACO, a trading company, to operate at a loss and narrow its revenue base. Minerals like Gold, copper and Diamond were not existent.
b) The company lacked sufficient capital to carry out the day- to- day administrative operations. The company had spent the little funds available in the construction of fortified trading stations, with little reward.
c) Transportation of goods in the region proved expensive and slow as the region did not have any navigable rivers
d) The company faced the problem of poor coordination of its activities caused by lack of proper channels of communication between the head office in Europe and the offices in the colony.
e) Some of the company officials were corrupt and therefore misappropriated funds.
f) The company faced numerous resistances especially in the Nandi country thus disrupting their operation. At one time, Fort Smith was set on fire by African resisters.
g) Some of the company officials lacked experience in administrative matters since most of them came merely as traders.
h) The company officials also were affected by the harsh tropical climate and diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness that killed many. The company thus surrendered the Charter in 1895 to the British government for a compensation of 250,000 dollars

Factors facilitated the establishment of the British control over Kenya during the 19th century

a) The Christian missionary factor. They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans, which was important for colonization. They also occasionally called home for protection against hostile communities.
b) Presence of trading company (IBEACO. The companies through their agents signed treaties with African rulers and among themselves as a means of initiating effective occupation of Kenya.
c) Superior military power/good army. The European armies were more efficient than he African ones. This was witnessed in the ability to quell the numerous wars of resistance like the Nandi resistance.
d) Disunity among African communities. By the time the British came to East Africa, the Wanga were up against the neighboring communities in western Kenya, the Nandi and the Maasai were at war and the Mijikenda against the coastal Arabs over land. This was of advantage to the British.
e) Signing of treaties. There was Collaboration of some communities with the British. The Maasai signed the Maasai Agreement of 1900. The Wanga also signed various treaties with the British.
f) The British policy of indirect rule was readily acceptable, thus reducing the chances of resistance.
g) Financial support from the home government.

KENYA PEOPLES’ RESPONSES BRITISH INVASION OF KENYA

Africans in Kenya offered varied responses to the British intrusion into their country. Some resisted while other collaborated.
The communities that resisted actively included the Nandi, Agiryama, Bukusu, Somali and sections of the Agikuyu

The Nandi Resistance (1895-1906)

Reasons why the Nandi resisted British occupation of their land.

a) The Nandi had gained a lot of pride, having subdued their neighbours E.g the Luo, Maasai, Abagusii and Abaluhyia. At that time, they were enjoying a sense of superiority that gave them confidence to take the British Intruders head-on.
b) The Nandi military superiority made them feel equal if not superior to the whites. Their warriors were well- trained and equipped and had gained a lot of experience through the numerous cattle raids the conducted against their neighbours.
c) The Nandi detested the physical appearance of the white people which they considered as evil and must be expelled from their community.
d) The Nandi were opposed to Land alienation by the British. They disliked the grabbing of their land for railway construction/white settlement.
e) Kimnyole’s prophecy that foreigners would dominate the Nandi motivated them to fight against the Europeans.
f) The Nandi had a long history of resisting and fighting intruders. They had successfully warded off the Arab and Swahili traders in the 1850s.
g) The Nandi resisted as a means of safeguarding their independence which they had enjoyed for a long time.
h) The Nandi also enjoyed unity under the leadership of Koitalel Arap Samoei between 1895 and 1905. This had helped them to register numerous victories against neighbouring communities. They therefore felt strong enough to resist the British.

Course of the Nandi rebellion.

The Nandi wars of resistance began in 1895.
The Nandi mainly employed guerilla warfare ambushing the caravan traders and mail carriers who passed in their territory.
When two Nandi warriors strayed into the Guasa Mesa administrative camp headed by Andrew Dick in 1895, he murdered them as a response to the attacks by the Nandi on foreigners passing in their territory.
The Nandi retaliated through the murder of a British trader, Peter West and thirty of his workers. This sparked off British punitive expeditions against the Nandi with the first in 1897 which however failed to stop the Nandi raids.
When the railway reached the Nandi territory, they refused to cooperate with the railway builders and even kept stealing building materials to make weapons and ornaments. They even ambushed and murdered railway builders.
In 1900, the British sent three punitive expeditions under Colonel Evatt, the commander of the Uganda Rifles reinforced by the Maasai, Baganda, Swahili and Indian mercenaries.
The Nandi were supported by the Kipsigis enabling them to resist for so long causing high death toll on the British and the Nandi as well.
The year 1901 witnessed a temporary truce worked out by the British administrator, Walter Mayes (1901-1905), after realizing the heavy causalities both sides were experiencing.
The war was re-ignited when the Nandi realized that the British had started settling and farming on their land. They destroyed the railway in protest. The British reacted by destroying crops and villages and stealing cattle for the next three years.
The Nandi war of resistance only ended when the British officer in Nandi, Captain Meinertzhagen, hatched a plan to have Koitalel, the chief coordinator of the résistance, killed.
He and his advisers were killed in October 1905, during a “peace” meeting convened by Meinertzhagen.
The Nandi finally sought for peace in December 1905 ending the ten year long resistance.

Why the Nandi offered the longest and strongest ever resistance to the British intrusion in Kenya.

a) The British intrusion into their territory happened when the Nandi were at the best of their power and superiority.
b) Existence of a superior military organization based on the age set system. The Nandi army was strong and could match any foreign force. The regimental age-set system supplied the Nandi with young men who were experienced in battle, disciplined, organized and were effective.
c) The Nandi also possessed knowledge of weapon manufacture and repair through their local ironsmiths and using stolen railway material.
d) The Nandi enjoyed regular supply of food and war equipment which sustained the fighters for a long period. This was mainly aided by the Nandi mixed economy enabling them to turn livestock for food when the British destroyed crops.
e) The Nandi had good knowledge of the terrain in which they were fighting the intruders thus having an advantage over the British who were not familiar with the terrain. The difficulties faced by the British as posed by the terrain disadvantaged them during the resistance
f) The Nandi knowledge of Guerilla tactics. This enabled them to organize many surprise attacks while vandalizing key British installations like the telegraph lines.
g) The existence of strong leadership. The Nandi leadership was religiously inspired and therefore very strong. The Orkoiyot was their symbol of unity and strength and was believed to possess some supernatural powers that gave courage to the fighters.
h) Their enemies, the British troops, were slowed down in their advance by problems like respiratory disease due to the wet and cold climate. The Nandi were accustomed to these conditions
i) The Nandi received assistance from the Kipsigis fighters – the Elgeyo, Lembus and Nyangori which enabled them to hold off the British for Six weeks in 1900..

Why the Nandi were defeated in the hands of the British.

a) The British obtained support, against the Nandi, from the collaborating communities like the Somali and the Maasai.
b) The British military strength remained superior to that of the Nandi especially in terms of the weapons. Their guns were superior to the Nandi spears.
c) There was an outbreak of smallpox in the Nandi country 1890. This weakened them by killing many and rendering others unable to fight on.
d) They Nandi failed to get support from the neighboring Kenyan communities like the Luo and the Abaluhyia who were not friendly to them.
e) The treachery employed by Captain Meinertzhagen, the British commander who lured Nandi Orkoiyot Koitalel Arap Samoei to a meeting where he was killed.
f) The death of Koitalel Arap Samoei demoralized the Nandi into even signing for peace.
g) The British used Scorched Earth Policy, which seemed more punitive to the Nandi since their houses were burnt and livestock confiscated.

Results of the Nandi resistance.

a) The Nandi country was colonized by the British after 1906. The Nandi lost their independence.
b) There was massive loss of life. Koitalel Arap Samoei, his entire council of elders and over 1000 warriors were killed. The British also experienced casualties on the part of their forces.
c) There was destruction of property through burning and looting. E.g the British confiscated atleast 5000 herds of cattle and burnt more than 5000 huts and grain stores.
d) There was massive land alienation. The Nandi were pushed into reserves where they experienced impoverishment due to drought and cattle diseases. The Nandi lot their territory and traditional salt licks at Kapchekendi and Kamelilo that were now inhabited by the whites.
e) The Nandi military organization disintegrated thus making them lose their dignity and authority in the region.
f) The Nandi were separated from their close cousins and allies the Kipsigis through the creation of the Nandi Reserves where they were confined. Their economic lifestyle of grazing animals freely was also disrupted.
g) Many Nandi warriors were recruited into the colonial police.

Agiriama resistance.

A Bantu speaking group inhabiting the coastal region, their reaction to the British invasion was motivated by the reaction of the Mazrui Arabs and the Swahili who rose up against the British in 1895. The Agiriama reaction began as an offer of support to the Mazrui Arabs, with whom they had long trading links, during their conflict with the British over succession to the Takaungu Sheikhdom. The Agiriama was also hitting back against the Busaidi Arabs who were encroaching on their territory. The British had supported the Al Busaidi collaborators throughout succession conflict. The British reacted by bombarding Rashid’s Headquarters at Mweli forcing the Agiriama and the Mazrui to resort to guerilla warfare. While the Mazrui Arabs later surrendered, the Agiriama now resorted to full scale résistance against the British encroachment in 1914.

Causes of the Agiriama resistance.

a) They did not want to pay taxes, especially hut tax that was hurting to traditionally polygamous group, to the British. The British also were forcing them to pay it in terms of labour instead of allowing them to sell their grains and livestock to pay.
b) They had lost their independence/the British replaced the Agiriama traditional rulers with their own appointees
c) They were opposed to forced labour on British plantations for little or no pay especially on land that had been snatched from them.
d) The British did not respect their culture. The British policemen at Kitengani insulted the Agiriama culture by raping their women.
e) The Agiriama were reacting against forced conscription into the King’s African Rifles. They were forced to produce a 1000 able-bodied men within a month, join the British army
f) They lost their land to the British due to the massive land alienation for settler farming. They were forced to offer paid labour on their own former land to the chagrin of the elders.
g) The British, who were seeking to take over the Agiriama role as middlemen, disrupted their trade in ivory and food stuffs
h) They disliked the British-appointed headmen whose duties included collection of taxes and recruitment of labour.

Course of the resistance.

The Agiriama resistance was inspired by a Giriama prophetess, Mekatilili wa Menza. She was joined by an Elder, Wanje wa Madorika in mobilizing people to a mass resistance against the British rule. The immediate course of their reaction was the forced military recruitment into the KAR. To provoke the British to war, they barred their young men from moving outside their villages to work. Mekatilili and Wanje called on the people to return to their ancestral shrine at Kaya Fungo and offer sacrifices and denounced all appointed puppet rulers in favour of the traditional council of elders. The two administered traditional oaths to unite and inspire the people to war. I.e. the Mukushekushe oath for women and the Fisi oat for men. When a state of emergency was declared by the British over the Agiriama, they resorted to Hit-and-run warfare. They attacked the homes of loyalists, Europeans and collaborators forcing the missionaries to seeker refuge at Rabai. The British countered the hit-and-run warfare with burning villages and crops and driving away livestock. The resistance only subsided when Mekatilili and Wanje were arrested and deported to Kisii. The Arabs, under Fadhili bin Omari, mediated between the Agiriama and the British, marking the end of the war under the following terms;

a) The Agiriama to offer a specific number of labourers for European settlers and public works.
b) They would also offer a certain number of able-bodied men to serve in the King’s African Rifles.
c) The British would occupy all the land to the north of River Sabaki.

Role of Mekatilili in the Agiriama resistance.

a) She encouraged the Agiriama to face the British by administering the Mukushekushe and Fisi oaths to unite the people to war.
b) She presented the grievances of the Agiriama, some of which the British later addressed.
c) She rallied the people together against a common enemy thus laying the basis for nationalistic struggles for independence.

Results of the Agiriama resistance to the British

a) Many people lost their lives some as fighters while others were caught in the crossfire.
b) The Agiriama lost their independence to the British
c) There was Rampant destruction of property i.e. food stores at home, food crops in the fields and cattle. Some property was lost through confiscation.
d) The community’s economic activities were disrupted, especially the lucrative trade at Takaungu, where they had been acting as middlemen.
e) The Agiriama were prohibited from brewing traditional liquor.
f) The British withdrew their order demanding Agiriama to move out of their homes.
g) For the first time women took up the leadership of the rebellion e.g. Mekatilili

Bukusu resistance.

Reasons why the Bukusu resisted the British rule.

a) They wanted to safeguard their independence and culture i.e. circumcision.
b) They were being compelled to recognize Nabongo Mumia as the overall leader of Abaluhyia.
c) The Bukusu did not like the idea of paying taxes to the British through force.
d) They resented the British demand in 1894, that the Bukusu warriors surrender guns they possessed.
e) The British invasion had happened when the Bukusu were enjoying immense military power.

Course of the resistance.

The Bukusu resistance began with the ambush of a trade caravan heading to Ravine through Bukusuland. The Bukusu stole all the rifles. When they were commanded to surrender all the guns in 1894 and declined, the British sent a punitive expedition which however was defeated. The British administrator at Elureko, Charles Hobley sought for reinforcement from Major William Grant of the Ugandan protectorate. In 1895, at the battles of Lumboka and Chetambe, the Bukusu were summarily defeated.

Methods used by the Bukusu to resist the British.

a) Use of Warfare. They directly fought the British troops led by Major William Grant, at Lumboka and Chetambe hills.
b) Ambushes. The Bukusu ambushed a caravan of traders, sent by the commanding officer at Kavirondo to the Ravine Station.
c) Revolting against rule by Wanga agents. The Bukusu Murdered a Wanga agent, Hamisi, who had been sent, to administer the area. `

Effects of the Bukusu resistance.

a) The Bukusu lost most of their land through massive land alienation
b) They lost their independence as Bukusuland was declared part of the British East Africa Protectorate.
c) There was massive loss of life within the Bukusu and the British forces.
d) There was loss f property and disruption of Bukusu economy. The Bukusu lost their cattle and sheep.
e) Bukusu women and children were taken prisoners by the British.

The Somali resistance.

The Somali resistance was a reaction to the British declaration that Jubaland was a British protectorate. They were led by their leader Ahmad bin Murgan.

Causes of Somali resistance.

a) The Somali were opposed to the division of Somaliland into the British and Italian spheres of influence, which separated the clans.
b) They were opposed to punitive expedition sent against them by the British.
c) The Somali people being Muslims were opposed to being controlled by the British who were Christians.
d) The British attempted to stop the Somali raiding activities against their neighbors.
e) The Somali were against British control of their pastureland and watering points.
f) The British wanted the Somali to drop their nomadic way of life.

Course of the resistance.

The British initially reacted minimally to the Somali aggression on their Kisimayu neighbourhood in 1898 due to the following reasons;

a) They viewed such an undertaking as to expensive in terms of the arms and military personnel that would have been involved.
b) The Somali were a nomadic group therefore it was very hard and time consuming to suppress them.
c) There was no economic justification for waging such a war on a highly unproductive territory.

However, when the Somali murdered the British sub-commissioner for Jubaland, Mr Jenner, in 1900, the British dispatched a punitive expedition of Indian regiments against them. The Somali rose up again in 1905 against the British after they had procured Firearms. The Somali skirmishes continued into 1914 with the change of boundaries and finally ended in 1925 when Jubaland was put under the Italian Somaliland.

Results of the Somali resistance.

a) There was massive loss of life, as many Somalis were killed. Sub-commissioner Jenner was also killed.
b) The British divide the Darod and Hawiye clans through the boundary changes of 1914.
c) The Somali cattle were confiscated.
d) Somali lost their independence through the declaration of the protectorate status.
e) The process of colonization by Europeans was delayed considerably.
f) There was favorable boundary change that saw Ogaden being placed under Italian Somaliland.

Collaboration

In Kenya, the Maasai, Wanga and a section of the Agikuyu, Akamba, and Luo collaborated.

The Maasai collaboration.

In the 19th century, the Maasai community changed from a once feared community to one marred by succession disputes and natural calamities. The Disputes between Lenana and Sendeyo over succession of Mbatian after he died weakened the Maasai community to the level of merely collaborating with the British intruders. Sendeyo moved with his followers to northern Tanzania leaving behind Lenana’s group who chose the path of collaboration.

Reasons for the Maasai collaboration with the British.

a) Losses of the Maasai military supremacy. At the time the British came to Kenya, the Nandi had overtaken the Maasai in terms of military superiority. They therefore sought for foreign support against their aggressors.
b) Internal feuds. There were a series of succession disputes in the period between 1850 and 1890 caused by differences in economic activities. In one of the disputes, when Lenana seemed to be losing to Sendeyo, he appealed to the British for support.
c) Natural calamities/disasters. The Maasai country witnessed severe hunger, livestock and human diseases in the 1850s. These weakened them more making them unable to resist.
d) Threat and wars from the Agikuyu. When the Maasai went to reclaim their women and children at the end of the hunger period, the met with outright threat of attacks from the Agikuyu. They therefore sought British support.
e) Prophecy of Mbatian. He prophesized the coming of a white man who was more powerful and that the Maasai should not bother to resist him.
f) Lenana personally chose the path of collaboration because he wanted to consolidate his position and that of his kingdom. He was looking for the much needed military support to overcome his sibling, Sendeyo of the Loita Maasai.

The process of Maasai collaboration.

The attempt by Lenana to secure assistance against Sendeyo was the beginning of his collaboration with the British. The Kedong massacre incident (Maasai warriors attacked a caravan of Swahili and Agikuyu traders travelling from Ravine) and the resultant death of 100 Maasai at the hands of three white men (Andrew Dick and two French companions) made the Maasai the immediately seek for collaboration with the British. They cooperated with the British in establishment of colonial administration. The provided mercenaries in the British punitive expedition against the Nandi, Kipsigis and Kikuyu. Maasai were rewarded with cattle acquired from uncooperative peoples e.g. The Nandi and Agikuyu They exchanged gifts and used British manufactured goods. Lenana was made a paramount chief. Between 1904 and 1923, a fair proportion of the Maasai agreed to be moved from one grazing land to another to pave way for British settlement. They signed the first Maasai agreement in 1904 by which they moved into two reserves, one to the south of Ngong and the railway and the other up on the Laikipia plateau. A corridor of five kilometres was set aside in Kinangop for the Eunoto ceremony that accompanied circumcision. The second Maasai agreement of 1911 implied the Maasai abandon the Laikipia plateau to rejoin others in the enlarged southern reserve.

Results of the Maasai collaboration.

a) Lenana was made a paramount chief of the Maasai in 1901.
b) The collaboration led to the separation of the Maasai related clans. The Purko Maasai were divided into the Loita and Ngong Maasai.
c) There was massive land alienation with the Maasai being moved to the Ngong and Laikipia reserves and later the southern reserve.
d) Maasai freedom in conducting rituals was curtailed with their confinement to a five – square-mile reserve for initiation rites.
e) The Maasai lost their independence. Just like any other part of kenya, Maasailand became part of the British protectorate.
f) There was total disruption of their territorial integrity. Even their cattle economy was disrupted as the number of livestock was reduced. There was an attempt to cause them to abandon their nomadic habit.
g) The Maasai gained material reward in form of cattle and grains looted from resisting communities like the Nandi and Luo of Ugenya.
h) Their age old custom of livestock cross- breeding with their Samburu neighbours was disrupted with the curtailing of their migratory behaviour. Their stock was therefore weakened.
i) Some Maasai were hired as mercenaries against the resisting communities such as the Nandi and Agikuyu.

Wanga Collaboration.

Nabongo Mumia, the Wanga leader from 1880, was an ambitious and shrewd leader who had the desire to expand his Kingdom through collaboration with British intruders and soliciting their military assistance.

Reasons for Wanga Collaboration.

a) Nabongo Mumia hoped that by collaborating, he would be made a paramount Chief of the entire western region.
b) There was family rivalry over leadership. This compelled Mumia to seek help against his brother Sakwa. He wanted to safeguard his position at home.
c) He wanted British protection against the Nandi, who were by then enjoying military superiority, the Bukusu and the Luo of Ugenya
d) He wanted to revive a disintegrating kingdom.
e) He wanted to take advantage of the British western civilization particularly education and religion. He also wanted material gains from the British.
f) He aimed at achieving territorial expansion. Mumia aimed at ruling up to Kabras, Kimilili, Marama, Butsotso, Ugenya and Samia.
g) He realized that his community was very small and it was futile to resist the militarily superior Europeans.
h) Having realized that the British declaration of western Kenya as their sphere of influence was inevitable, he chose to become their ally at the earliest opportunity ever.

Process of Wanga Collaboration.

Mumia’s contact with the outside world began when he befriended the Swahili and Arab caravan traders and later the IBEA Company merchants when they visited Wangaland. They built a fort and a trading station at Elureko, his capital, which was to remain the headquarters of the British administration in western Kenya until 1920.

Ways in which Nabongo of Wanga collaborate with the British.

a) He offered his seat-elureko to become an operational base of the British expeditions.
b) He offered his men to fight alongside the British in their expeditions against other communities.
c) He provided Wanga agents to aid the British in administering the conquered areas.
d) The Wanga provided food, water and shelter to the British invading forces.
e) They gave the British free passage through their territory and offered them hiding places during the battles.
f) Mumia signed treaties of friendship with the British.

Results of the Wanga collaboration with the British.

a) Wanga kingdom was strengthened using military support from the British. Wanga kingdom was expanded. Nabongo gained more territories e.g. Samia, Bunyala and Busoko
b) Their king Mumia was declared a paramount Chief thus raising his prestige. He ruled as a British paramount chief ruling as far as Bunyala, Gem , Ugenya and Alego, upto 1926, when he officially retired
c) Mumia warriors became agents of the British colonialism. The warriors were used to subdue the Luo, Bukusu and Nandi.
d) The Wanga Princes became agents of British rule over western Kenya. For example, Mumia’s half-brother Murunga was appointed chief of the Isukha and Idakho.
e) Mumias headquarters at Elureko became the seat of British administration in western Kenya upto 1920 when it was moved to Kakamega.
f) Mumia and his people gained material benefits from the British through trade, western education and religion.
g) Nabongo Mumia became an important ally of the British administration in western ken\ya, providing them with vital information over the appointment of chiefs and Headmen in western Kenya.
h) Due to the Wanga Collaboration, there was intensified enmity and hostility between the Wanga people and other Abaluhyia subsections who viewed the Wanga as traitors.
i) However, The Wanga, just like any other collaborator or resister lost their independence when Kenya was declared a British Colony in 1920.

Mixed reactions

The communities that exhibited mixed reaction were the Akamba, Agikuyu and Luo.

The Akamba Reaction.

The arrival of the British traders threatened to destabilize the prominence enjoyed by the Akamba as middlemen during the long distance trade. The British even tried to stop the Akamba from organizing raids on their Oromo, Agikuyu and Maasai neighbours.

Why the Akamba decided to resist British administration?

a) The British failed to respect Akamba traditions and customs. For example, the cutting down of the ithembo (shrine) tree for a flag post at Mutituni in 1891.
b) When the Akamba attacked the Agikuyu, The British intervened against them. This was not taken kindly.
c) The Akamba were protesting the misconduct of Company officials based at Machakos who stole from the local people and raped Akamba women.
d) The establishment of colonial administration disrupted the long distance trade, which was the Akamba lifeline.
e) The establishment of British rule meant loss of independence for the Akamba.
f) The establishment of military posts in Ukambani without their consent. The British built a fort at Masaku in 1890.
g) The British kept on disrupting their peace by sending military expeditions that resulted in death and massive destruction of property.
h) The Akamba were also resisting forced labour.

Course of the Akamba resistance.

In 1890, Nzibu Mweu led he Akamba in boycotting to sell goods to the company agents. Prophetess Syonguu also ordered the Iveti Warriors to attack the Masaku fort in the same year as a reaction to the cutting down of the ithembo tree for a flagpole.
The British agents were defeated during this surprise attack.
When the British tried to stop the Akamba raids on their neighbours in 1894, a Warrior, Mwatu wa Ngoma ordered the Akamba warriors, who had been inspired by medicinemen, to attack the British.
The British responded with devastating consequences on the side of the Akamba forcing them into collaboration with the British District Commissioner, John Ainsworth. Mwatu wa Ngoma became a collaborator.
Later, another gallant fighter, Mwanamuka, led the Kangundo people to attack the colonial police at Mukuyuni and Mwala, killing six. With the assistance of Maasai mercenaries, the British sent a punitive expedition against the Akamba and even confiscated their livestock When Mwanamuka tried to blockade the Lukenya area to cut off communication between Fort Smith and Masaku, he was met with devastating consequences that forced him to also petition for peace.

Why a section of the Akamba collaborated with the British.

a) They had lost heavily during the Akamba-British war of 1894 causing them to fear the British.
b) The ruthlessness with which the British attacked the Akamba scared many warriors into collaborating. For example, the Machakos station superintendent, Leith dispatched troops to deal with Syonguu’s forces in 1891, causing merciless killings and looting of property.
c) Some especially the trades collaborated expecting material gains.
d) Collaborators wanted to gain prestige.
e) They wanted to get guns to be used in robbing for wealth.
f) The Akamba had been weakened by the 1899 famine and were therefore unable to effectively tackle the British.

Reasons for the Akamba defeat.

a) Some of the Akamba were not patriotic to the resistance course. Some self-serving opportunists allied with the colonial agents with the aim of enriching themselves thereby resulting in the Akamba defeat.
b) Internally, the Akamba lacked territorial cohesion. It was therefore very difficult to coordinate a strong resistance to British rule among a highly segmented society lacking in a centralized system of government.
c) Sections of The Akamba community experienced severe famine in 1899. They were weakened to the level of being unable to stage a gainful resistance to the British.
d) The role of missionaries who pacified some sections to the level of collaborating with the intruders. The missionaries actively undermined their religious practices and traditional beliefs.
e) When the Akamba caravan trade and raiding activities were disrupted, they had lost a significant source of livelihood and thus became weakened more.

Consequences of the Akamba reaction.

a) The Akamba lost their independence as their territory was declared a British protectorate.
b) There was massive alienation of Kamba land to pave way for white settlement.
c) Many people, especially the Akamba warriors lost their lives during the confrontations with the British soldiers.
d) The British interfered with the Akamba culture by cutting down the Ithembo tree and raping their women.
e) The Akamba were subjected to heavy taxation in order to raise revenue for the colonial administration.
f) Many of the Akamba men were forcefully conscripted into the King’s African Rifles to fight in world War I.

The Agikuyu reaction.

The Agikuyu was also a highly segmented nature lacking in territorial unity. This explains why they had mixed reaction against the British.

Explain the causes of Agikuyu resistance.

a) The British failed to respect Agikuyu traditions and customs. The missionaries campaigned against female circumcision and Kikuyu forms of worship.
b) Misconduct of company officials. They stole from the local people, killing some of them, and raped Agikuyu women.
c) The Agikuyu were revolting against the forced supply of grains and water, by their women, to the British soldiers.
d) There was massive land alienation, which had left many landless or pushed to unproductive land.
e) Harassment of the Agikuyu, by British punitive expeditions. To enforce their policies, the British usually applied excessive force.
f) The British had begun meddling in the Agikuyu internal affairs making them suspicious of their intentions.
g) Fear of Loss of independence by some leaders like Waiyaki wa Hinga.
h) The Agikuyu were reacting against the punishment meted on them by the British for raiding Fort Smith in 1892.

Reasons why some Agikuyu collaborated.

a) Agikuyu leaders like Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Karuri wa Gakure wanted to derive personal wealth and prestige through collaboration.
b) Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Karuri wa Gakure hoped that by collaborating, they would be made paramount Chiefs among the Agikuyu.
c) The collaborators wanted British protection against their enemies amongst the Agikuyu and other neighbouring communities.
d) They wanted to take advantage of the British western civilization particularly education and religion.
e) They also wanted material gains from the British through trading with them.
f) The Agikuyu of Nyeri realized that it was futile to resist the militarily superior Europeans. They therefore chose to collaborate.

Organization of the Agikuyu reaction.

When captain Lugard established a fort at Dagoretti in 1890, he began relating with Waiyaki wa Hinga who was in charge of the area. Wayaki’s people supplied Lugard’s men with food. However, when Wilson took over from Lugard who had left for Uganda, his soldiers began looting food and livestock from the Agikuyu.
The Agikuyu reacted by setting the Dagoretti fort on fire. Waiyaki was arrested by the forces sent by Sub-commissioner Ainsworth, and died enroute to Mombasa. It is alleged that he was buried alive at Kibwezi after provoking his captors. Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu, a collaborator, succeeded Waiyaki at Dagoretti. In 1899, Fort Dagoretti was closed down due to a series of raids. Francis Hall opened another Fort at Murang’a (renamed Fort Hall after his death in 1901) after the locals were subdued and forced to accept the British Colonial rule. British trader John Boyes forged an alliance with Karuri wa Gakure, the Agikuyu leader at Fort Hall, which enabled him to subdue the resisting Agikuyu groups. He also made contacts with Wang’ombe of Gaki (Nyeri) who together with Gakure supplied the British with mercenaries in exchange for confiscated loots from resisting groups. Meinertzhagen, who succeeded Francis Hall in 1902, subdued the Muruku and Tetu section (led by Chief Gakere) of the Agikuyu. Chief Gakere was murdered and his associates deported to the coast after they wiped out the entire Asian caravan on the slopes of the Aberdares. The Agikuyu of Iriani (Nyeri) were defeated in 1904 and their Aembu and Ameru allies sought for peace in 1906, having seen the effects of resisting. By 1910, British rule had been established in the entire Mount Kenya region. With the Agikuyu settling peacefully in the reserves upto 1920s when they began to agitate again.

Results of the Agikuyu mixed reaction.

a) The reactions fuelled mistrust, hatred and animosity in most of Kikuyuland. Such feelings of mistrust continue among the Agikuyu of Murang’a, Kiambu and Nyeri up-to-date.
b) There was massive alienation of Agikuyu land by the British with the help of the collaborators like Wang’ombe wa Ihura and Gathirimu who gave land to the British for construction.
c) Some Agikuyu leaders amassed a lot of wealth and rose to prominence. For example, Karuri wa Gakure and Wang’ombe of Nyeri,
d) The collaborators like Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and his people received western education and were converted to Christianity.
e) There was massive loss of lives for the resisters. For example Waiyaki wa Hinga and many Agikuyu fighters were killed.
f) The Agikuyu, both collaborators and Resisters lost their independence when their territory was declared a British protectorate.
g) The Agikuyu wars of resistance forced the British to shift their administrative base from Fort Dagoretti to Fort Hall.
h) There was massive destruction of property. The Agikuyu razed down Fort Dagoretti. The Agikuyu villages were burnt by the British.

The Luo reaction.

The resisters were the Luo of Sakwa, seme, Uyoma, Ugenya and Kisumu. The collaborators were the Luo of Gem and Asembo, led by Chief (Ruoth) Odera Akang’o.

Reasons for the resistance against the British by the Luo of Ugenya.

a) To protect their land and national heritage.
b) To protect their freedom and independence
c) Protect their livestock, grains and fish from being taken by the British soldiers who were undisciplined
d) The Luo had become a formidable nation in the area and did not entertain any intruder.
e) They were also provoked by the punitive expedition sent against them by Mumia and the British.
Why the Gem and Asembo Luos collaborated.
a) Their chief, Odera Akang’o had been influenced by the Wanga Neighbours who had gained materially from their collaboration.
b) Odera also needed British assistance to subdue the Luo of Seme, Uyoma, Sakwa and Ugenya, and the Nandi, who were a threat to his people.
c) He realized the futility of resisting the British through the experience of his neighbours.

Course of the Luo resistance.

The Luo of Ugenya set off the resistance by attacking the Wanga in an attempt to expand. They vandalized British key installations like the telegraph wires and administrative stations. In 1896, the British sent an expedition against them and 200 people were killed. When the British attacked the Seme Luo for cattle and Grains, they were provoked into revolting. They attacked the Asembo Luo who had collaborated with the British. The British invaded them in 1898 with devastating effects in terms of property and life loss. The Luo of Kisumu rose up in 1898 attacking a British Canoe party on Winam Gulf for taking their fish without paying. They were however overcome. The Gem and Asembo Luos led by Ruoth Odera Akang’o supported the British throughout all these confrontations.

Results of the Luo reaction.

a) Both collaborators and resisters lost their independence to the British.
b) The Luo lost their property through burning and looting.
c) There was massive loss of lives, especially among the Ugenya Luo.
d) It Bred hatred between the collaborators and resisters
e) The collaborating communities were able to gain western education and religion as the British established schools and missions in their areas.
f) The African leadership was replaced with the British administration, thereby undermining traditional political systems.
g) The Luo were alienated from their land to pave way for the British occupation and settlement.

next >> CHAPTER 24: WORLD WARS

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Chapter 25: International Relations

6/5/2019

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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

International Relations refers to the cooperation or interaction between individuals or groups of nations of the world

Benefits of international relations

Enhance peace and security in the world the diplomatic policies of nations call for peaceful settlement of disputes, thus reducing war incidences.
Promote understanding and unity. This done through Encouraging cultural exchange between nations.
Help in getting collectives solutions to world problems. Problems of global concern like desertification, global warming, armament and environmental pollution, are dealt with collectively.
Promote economic growth through trade. Due to good relations , there is expanded international trade which enables countries to acquire goods they don’t produce
Developing countries get financial assistance. Developed nations have continued to
provide financial and technical assistance to developing nations

American Embassy

Ways in which nations relate internationally.

Economic relations. This is through trade and commercial activities among nations. For example, developed nations giving loans and grants to developing nations.
Diplomatic relations. This is a peaceful means of relationship between nations in which there is exchange of Ambassadors or High Commissioners.
Political relations. This involves cooperation between countries with similar political systems or ideologies. E.g. USA and Western Europe, in 1964, Tanganyika united with the island of Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanzania.
Socio-cultural relations. This takes place in form of exchange and competition between dance troops, musicians, acrobats, sports teams, theatre groups etc, e.g. participation in Commonwealth Games.

International Organizations

There are two types of international organizations;

International Governmental Organizations (IGOs) for example UN, Commonwealth, NAM and African Union.( formed by two or more sovereign states).
International Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) created by individuals or private organizations. E.g. International Red cross, Amnesty International and Transparency International.

Role played by International Governmental Organizations.

The provide member states with a forum to consult and tackle problems of concern.
They act as regulators in their fields to ensure the welfare of Humankind e.g World Health Organization (WHO) regulates health sector through immunization, vaccination and other prevention campaigns.
They enhance peace and security through peace-keeping missions and response to disasters.
They contribute to charity and facilitate equitable distribution of resources in the world. For example, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank advance loans to developing nations.

THE UNITED NATIONS

The UN was founded after world war Two as an organization of independent states with the following objectives;

To promote and maintain international peace and security and prevent the occurrence of another world war.
To foster friendly relations among nations of the world.
To promote respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms.
To promote social progress and better living standards of the people.
To protect the interests of minority groups such as women and children.
To promote economic growth among member states who are working towards reconstructing the world economy that was destroyed by the World War 2.
To replace the league of nations which had collapsed before the outbreak of world war 2

Formation of the United Nations

The signing of the Allied declaration in London on 12th June 1941 marked the first step in the formation of the UN. On 14th August 1941, Franklin Delano Roosevelt of USA and Winston Churchill of Britain, meeting in USA, proposed a set of principles for international collaboration in maintaining peace and security. This was the Atlantic Charter. The charter pledged respect for human Freedom, Allowed all nations the freedom to choose the form of government they preferred and provided that no territory should change hands after war without consent of its people.
On 1st January 1942, representatives of Allied nations meeting in Washington signed the
‘Declaration by United Nations’ and proclaimed support for the Atlantic Charter This marked the first official use of the term ‘United Nations’ as suggested by President Roosevelt in reference to the 26 nations
The first Blueprint of the UN was prepared at a conference held at Dumbarton Oaks Estate, Washington from 21st September to 7th October 1944. Representatives of USSR, USA, UK and China agreed on the aims, structure and functions of a world organization. On 11th February 1945, the Yalta Conference held by US president Roosevelt, UK PM Churchill and Russian PM Stalin declared the resolve to establish an international organization to maintain peace and security.
On 25th April 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, USA attended by delegates from 50 nations. It drew a 111-Article Charter which was adopted on 25th June 1945.
The UN began its official functions on 24th October 1945 after ratification of the charter by USSR, USA, Britain, China and France.

Organization of the UNO

Membership to the UN is open to all peace-loving nations that accept the obligations of the charter. By 1945, only 51 states had signed the charter. Kenya Joined on 16th December 1963. By April 2003 membership had grown to 191 states.
To achieve its aims, the UN spelt out in its charter the following principles;

It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members.
All member states must fulfil, in good faith, their charter obligations.
All member states must settle international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering peace, security and justice.
They must refrain, in their international relations, from the threat or use of force against others.
They must give the United Nations every assistance to any action it takes in accordance with the charte`r, and shall not assist states against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action.
The United Nations must ensure that states which are not members act in accordance with these principles insofar as necessary for maintenance of international peace and security.

The UNO structure comprises six principal organs as follows;

THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

This is the main deliberative organ of the UNO, but which cannot enforce action on members. It comprises all member states.
Functions of the UN General Assembly
To help in its operation, the general assembly has the following committees;
The political and security committee, the special political committee, the economic and financial committee, the committee on social ,humanitarian and cultural issues, the trusteeship committee , the administration/budget committee and the legal affairs committee.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL

It has 15 members from 15 countries. Ten of these are non-permanent. It also has five permanent members namely china, France, USA, Russia and UK.
Its main function is to maintain world peace and security.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

Its membership is 54. 18 are elected each year for a term of three years.
Its function is to coordinate the economic and social work of UN and its specialized agencies. E.g. in trade, status of women, Population, science and technology

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

It inherited the work of the Mandates Commission of the former League of Nations. It had responsibility over the territories under colonial rule-. - To promote social, economic, political and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories.
Consists of five permanent members and six additional ones appointed by the General Assembly

THE SECRETARIAT

The head of the secretariat is the secretary general. It has its headquarters in New York. Its staff members come from 139 countries. Its work covers all areas outlined in the UN Charter.

THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

It has its headquarters at Hague. It is the principal judicial body of the UN. It gives advisory opinions on legal questions. It has 15 judges.

SPECIALIZED AGENCIES

These are separate specialized agencies which are autonomous organizations related to the UN by special agreements. (REF TO PAGE 49 OF EVOLVING WORLD)
Past Secretary Generals of the United Nations Organization since its inception

Trygve lie of Norway (1946-1953).
Dag Hammarskjöld of Sweden (1953-1961)
U Thant of Burma (1961-1971)
Kurt Waldheim of Austria (1972-1982)
Javier Perez de Cueller of Peru (1982-1991)
Boutros Ghali Boutros. Of Egypt (1992-1996)
Kofi Annan of Ghana (1997-2000)
Ban Ki Moon.(2000 up to present)

Achievements of the United Nations Organization

The organization has succeeded in keeping peace amid the threats of nuclear war and seemingly endless regional conflicts in the world. UNO has developed more than 35 peacekeeping missions and observer nations.
The UN specialized agencies are engaged in a vast array of social work, affecting positively, every aspect of people’s lives around the world. E.g., child survival and development, environmental protection, medical research, agricultural development, education etc.
The organization has helped in promoting democracy around the world. It has enabled people in more than 45 countries to participate in free and fair elections, e.g. in Namibia, Cambodia, El Salvador, Eritrea, Mozambique, South Africa etc.
The UNO has promoted development of skills and potentials vital for all aspects of development. The UNDP, in close co-operation with over 170 member states and the UN agencies designs and implements projects for agriculture, industry, education and environment.
It has helped in promotion of Human Rights. Since the adoption of the universal declaration of human rights in 1948, the UN has helped to enact more than 80 agreements on political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights.
It has played a vital role in environmental protection. ‘The Earth Summit’, the UN
Conference On Environment and Development held in Rio De Janeiro in 1992, resulted in treaties on biodiversity and climate change
Promoting self-determination and independence. The organization has brought about independence of 80 countries that are now among its member states.
Providing humanitarian aid to victims of conflicts. More than 30 million refugees fleeing war, famine or persecution have received aid from the UN high commission for refugees since 1951.

Problems facing the United Nations Organization in its operation

National sovereignty. Many countries disregard the UNO resolutions in favour of their sovereignty.
It is unable to stop aggressions and conflicts between individual countries when superpowers are involved.
Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. E.g it has not always been able to send enough peacekeeping forces due to lack of sufficient funds.
It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions.
The permanent members with veto powers often adopt policies that promote their own national interests at the expense of the collective interests of most countries in the world.
Loyalty to other organizations. UNO members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the UNO.
Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the work of UNO in promoting world peace. This was manifested in the cold war period.
The arms race. The UNO has found it difficult to achieve world peace because of the arms race in different parts of the world. The arms race generates and sustains conflict rather than peace.
Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against co-operation.
The increased occurrence of natural disasters such as famine, floods and epidemics has created an unexpected demand for economic resources. This automatically the UN’s resources.

THE COMMONWEALTH
Origin and structure of Commonwealth of Nations

It is a voluntary association of 54 sovereign countries around the world, which were initially part of the British Empire.The commonwealth origin is the British Empire comprising the British protectorates, colonies and dominions, which included Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Newfoundland, Irish Free State and South Africa.
The idea to launch the association is traced back to 1839, with the publication of the Durham report.The modern commonwealth began in 1947 with the end of the British rule in India.
In 1949, India and Pakistan joined the commonwealth.
The commonwealth secretariat is based in London. It deals with day to day running of the organization and organizes meetings. The head of the commonwealth is the Queen/King of England. The Commonwealth has the Heads of State Summit which meets for a week every two years to discuss political and economic issues.
There are also the Ministerial meetings once after every three years to deal with different issues.
The commonwealth has specialized agencies dealing with various areas of concern.

Membership to commonwealth

It comprised 54 developed and developing nations. The members are categorized as follows;

Britain and her Dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
African Nations.
Asian nations.
Islands from the Caribbean, Pacific and Mediterranean.

Characteristics of commonwealth states

Members of the commonwealth use English as a common language.
Members maintain cultural ties. For instance, they participate in the commonwealth games every four years.
Members co-operate in the field of education.
Members recognize the queen of England as the head of commonwealth.
Members have a common military tradition based on the British military system. They also promote military exchange programmes.
Members share common democratic institutions from Britain such as parliamentary system of government.
Members have adopted constitutions that are almost similar.

Objectives that led to the formation of the commonwealth nations

To promote world peace and international understanding. Members are expected to abide by the UN Peace programmes.
To promote development of poor member states.
To intensify co-operation between member states, in matters of education, sport and economic development.
To ensure personal liberty and equality of rights to all citizens regardless of race, colour, creed or political beliefs.
To oppose all forms of colonial dominion by being committed to the principles of human dignity and equality, self-determination and non-racism.
To promote the exchange of knowledge, professionalism and cultural, economic, legal and political issues.
To fights poverty, ignorance and disease to remove wealth disparities and raise the living standards, and achieve a more equitable international society.
To enhance free international trade by removing trade barriers, but at the same time, giving due consideration to the special requirements of the developing countries.

Organization of the Commonwealth

The structure of the commonwealth comprises of three organs;

The Head of state Summit. It meets once in every two years for a week for extensive decisions and consultations. Decisions are reached by consensus.
Ministerial Meetings. The commonwealth ministers of Finance, Foreign Affairs and defence hold regular meetings once every year. Ministers of Health, Education and Law hold meetings once every three years
The Commonwealth Secretariat: headed by the secretary general and with astaff of 350 drawn from member countries. It co-ordinates co-operation among members. The first secretary General was Arnold Smith of Canada. In 1990, Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria became the first African Secretary General.
Specialized Agencies;
1. The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-Operation; supplies funds, finance, experts and advisers for projects carried out in member states.
2. The Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau; it provides co-operation in the field of agriculture.
3. The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association; helps to improve relations between parliamentarians of member states.
4. The Commonwealth Regional Health Secretariat for East, Central and Southern Africa; promotes cooperation in health.

Benefits of membership to Commonwealth

Member states have received technical expertise through the provision of experts and advisers in various fields e.g. agriculture.
The developing member states of the organization have acquired skilled manpower through the provision of scholarship and setting up of training programmes by nations like Britain and Canada.
Member states have been able to interact with one another through activities such as the commonwealth games and cultural exchange programmes.
Member states have conducted trade among themselves with relative ease and this has helped them to develop their economies.
The organization has promoted friendship and understanding among member states through conferences such as The Heads of Government meetings.
It has enhanced democratization process in developing member states of the organization

Functions of commonwealth (REF to evolving world page 60):
Problems facing Commonwealth of Nations

Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against co-operation. Members coming from developing world have very different outlook from those coming from the developed world.
Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the operations of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. Poor members normally owe many debts to their foreign masters and would therefore toe to their demands.
The problem of sovereignty. Many countries disregard the commonwealth resolutions in favour of their sovereignty.
It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions.
Loyalty to other organizations. commonwealth members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the commonwealth
The colonial legacy. Many problems arising from past colonial policies have rocked the organization. E.g. the land issue in Zimbabwe.
The influence of other organizations like NATO who weaken the commonwealth by wooing members to their regions.
Race and colour problem. The conflict between white and black people or other color has become another setback.
Dominance by the big powers. This has caused dismay to the organization. Serious inner tension still undermines the commonwealth activities.

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CHAPTER 2: EARLY MAN - KCSE HISTORY & GOVERNMENT NOTES

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Theories that explains the origin of man

The creation theory
The mythical/traditional theory
The evolution theory

Was put forward by Charles Darwin in 1859. In his book “the origin of species by means of natural selection. He argues that plants and animals evolved from simple life form to complex organisms that occurred slowly over millions of years ago through

Mutations
Natural selection
Environmental adaptation
Isolation

He noted the following important points

All organisms of creatures uniquely different and this uniqueness is based on hereditary factors which the organisms has from birth
Although many young organisms are produced, few manage to develop to maturity
Those who manage adapt to the existing environment
Only the fittest organisms could survive as the weak species become extinct.
Having now survived all the states the species may be isolated from the rest. Through adaptation to the new environment and this may take on a significantly different physical form

The archaeologists have proved that Africa was the cradle of mankind and particularly east Africa. From Africa human beings spread to other parts of the world. They adapted in the environment of different areas bringing about race differentiation

The creation theory

In the book of genesis it is written that God created the universe and all the living creatures including man, six day
God created man and woman in his own image
He blessed them and told them to reproduce and fill the earth

Mythical theory

Most African community has myths of origin whose main points are that the first people were created by God.

The evolution theory

Why Africa is considered the cradle of man

There are numerous archeological sites on the continent where early fossils that resemble man has been found
The savannah grasslands provided space for early man to effectively hunt and gather his food
The tropical climate was suitable for early man’s existence for it was warm throughout the year
There were many all seasons rivers that provided fresh water and trapping for wild animals
Geographically Africa was at the centre of the Pangaea which made it possible for all early ape-like creatures to move to other regions during the continental drift.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL sites in east Africa

Uganda

Tanzania

garusi
apis rock
ngorera caves
eyasi
olduvai gorge
isimila
peninj
laefoli

nsongezi
nyero
magosi
paraa
napak
ishanga
nyabusora
mweya

Ethiopia

omo river valley
hadar
afar depression

South Africa

skerkfontein
kromaruai
swartkrans
maka pansgat

Stages trough which man evolved

Aegyptopithecus
Dryopithecus africanas (proconsul)
Kenyapithecus (ramapithecus)
Australopithecus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens sapiens

Aegyopithecus (egyptophicus)

He was an ape like skull found in the faiyum depression in Egypt
He means an Egyptian shape
The teeth was closer to that of a herbivore

Features

He was small about 4 kgs
He lived in the forest and looked like a monkey
Had stereoscopic vision (sharp)
He had enclosed eye sockets
He had 32 teeth
Had a tail
Walked on four limbs
Used his hand to swing from one tree to the other

Drypithecus africunus (proconsul)

The skull was found at Rusinga Island in Lake Victoria
He lived in the east African forests
He lived between 20-25 million years ago

Characteristics

He moved on all four limbs
He was small in size and looked like a chimpanzee
He had long teeth
He had a smooth forehead

Ramapithecus / kenyapithecus / woodland ape

The skull was discovered at fort tenan near kericho by Louis Leakey in 1961
He lived between 12-14 million years ago
He lived in open savannah

Characteristics

He had 32 teeth and he had smaller canines than earlier apes
He had a brain size of 400cc
He had massive jaws
He weighed between 18-36 kgs
He occasionally walked one two legs

Australopithecus / zinjanthropus / southern ape

He lived between 1-7 million years ago
The skull was first discovered at taung in Botswana in 1924
Dr Louis and Mary Leakey discovered similar fossils at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Lake Turkana in 1959
Similar fossils were found in omo valley and hadar in Ethiopia

Types of austropithecus

Australopithecus anamensis

This is the latest fossil found at kanapoi and allia bay of Lake Turkana by dr meave Leakey

Australopithecus afarensis

Lived between 4-3 million ago It was found at afarensis afar depression (hence it name)

Australopithecus africanus

It was found at koobi fora and taungi makapansgat bterkfontaini in South Africa

Austropithecus robustus/ bosei

Found in South Africa
East Africa at olduvai gorge in Tanzania and was called the bosei.
Also called zinjantropus

Characteristics

Walked on two legs
He was hairy, short and strong
He has a low forehead and deep-set eyes
His brain capacity was 450-550cc
They had sharp vision
They had massive jaws with large molars and smaller canines
They did not make tools

Homo habilis

Homo means man habilis means ability. It means man with ability
He was the first species of man
His remains were discovered by Jonathan Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in 1964

Characteristics

He developed elementary speech
His brain capacity was between 500-800cc
He was a tool maker (oldowan)
He developed the thumb
He was about 1.8 m in height
His skull was shaped like modern man
His teeth were in the same position on the jaws as ours

Homo erectus

The word means upright man
His remain were found at afar triangle, hadar valley in Ethiopia and Lake Victoria region

Characteristics

They walked in an upright posture
They had a more advanced speech than his predecessors
He was 5 feet tall
He had a brain capacity of between 775-1250cc
They were the first people to use fire
They were omnivorous
He made more advanced tools (Acheulian)

Homo sapiens

It means thinking man or intelligent man
His remains were found near Lake Turkana, kanjera, omo valley and Lake Victoria

Types of Homo sapiens

The Rhodesian man

Was discovered in modern Zambia hence the name Rhodesian man

Neanderthal man

Was found in the neander valley in German in 1856
He was heavily built, with a thick skull, broad shoulders and eyebrows like an ape
He was a nomad gathering and hunting deer, wild pigs and wild sheep
Other remains were found in Asia and other parts of Europe e.g. France, Belgium, gilbraitar, Italy and former Yugoslavia

Cro-magnon man

He cooked with fire and made improved tools
He was hunter-gatherer, painter and lived in caves

Characteristics

He was about six feet tall
He had long straight legs for swift movement
He had small teeth with a steep was round four head
He was a fisherman
He was a religious
He made tools that were refined (microliths)

Homo sapiens sapiens

Modern man
He lived from 10000 years ago

Characteristics

He is curious. Intelligent and plans ahead
He made boats
He developed agriculture
He has a brain capacity of about 1400
He lived in settlements
He has invented which have made life more

The culture of early man and economic practices

Culture refers to the way of life a people. It is understood through the study of the stone age of Paleolithic periods.
This periods includes:

Old Stone Age
Middle Stone Age
New Stone Age

Old Stone Age/ early / lower Paleolithic tools and weapons

Stone Age refers to a period in time when man widely used stone as materials to make tools, weapons and artifacts
These tools are found at Olduvai Gorge, koobi fora, omo valley in Uganda and kariandusi in Kenya
The tools are associated with Homo habilis and austalopithecus. They are referred to as oldwan or peeble tools
They represent the first phase of Old Stone Age
Other tools were at acheul valley in France and are known as Acheulian tools

They are associated with Homo erectus and represent the second phase of Stone age. They include:

Fist hatchet
Hand axes
Knives
Scrappers
Spear heads
Arrow heads
Clubs

Use of stone tools

Cutting meat and vegetables
Grinding tough vegetables
Skinning animals
Digging roots
Scrapping skins
Sharpening
Defense and hunting

Houses and food

They sheltered in stone caves during the day and at night they slept on trees to avoid animal attacks
They ate raw meat, fruits, vegetables, eggs, insects and roots

Climate and clothes

The climate is coldest than it is now
Man had hairy body and didn’t wear clothes

Social life

They lived in small groups of about 20-30 people. They had small families
Man used gestures growling and whistling to communicate
There was division of labour as women were involved in gathering and men hunted animals

Hunting methods used during the Old Stone Age

Chasing and throwing stone and spears at the animals
Digging large on the paths through which animals went to drink water and covering the pit with delicate stones and grass
Chasing animals over steep cliffs and forcing them to fall over and break their limbs
Driving the animals in the swampy areas where they stuck
Waiting for animals near watering points
Man killed animals that were injured by others

Middle Stone Age period / middle paleolithic

Tools and weapons

The period is associated with Homo erectus who continued to use smaller, thinner, lighter and sharper tools known as Acheulian
He used wood together with stone and this reduced the weight and size of tools
Some of these tools were named sango bay of Lake Victoria and were named sangoan

Climate and clothing / food

It become warmer leading to heavier rainfall
They ate meat. He also ate vegetables, fruits, insects, eggs and fish
He cooked his food
Man started wearing animal skin, necklaces and he his body with red ochre and oil
He made waist belts using skins

Shelter

Man started living in cares and rock even at night
The entrance of the cave was covered to keep out wind and rain
At night they kept fire burning at the entrance of the care to scare away wilds

Social life/language

They lived in groups of 50 people had a leader
They helped each other in times of hardship
They moved in groups for security reasons
They developed a language of communication which strengthened their social bonds
They used clicks and grants

Rock art/ painting

Man painting pictures of the animals he with arrow piercing them would their hunting expectations great rules
Cave painting also shows a keen observation of life
They painted to decorate their caves
Cave painting helped to develop mans writing skills
Man preserved his cultural heritage through painting

Invention of fire

Man learnt to make and use fire

How fire changed man’s way of life

Warming himself during the cold nights
The flames of fire gave him light
Fire provided man with protection by keeping away dangerous animals at night
He used fire to cook and soften his food
Fire was used to harden the tips of his tools
He used fire to hunt by scaring wild animals towards muddy or swampy areas at night
He used fire to preserve his food e.g. meat and fish by drying it
Fire was used as means of communication
Fire made it possible for man to move out of the warm savannah to other cold parts of the world

New Stone Age – upper PALEOLITHIC

Tools and weapons

They are associated with Homo sapiens
The types of tools were known as microliths. They were very small.
The tools were found in qadan site in the Nile valley and gamble caves in Kenya

They includes

Daggers
Fishing harpoons
Saw blades
Knives
Arrow heads
Bone needles
Bows and arrows

Shelter /clothing /social life

He lived in rock shelters
He built hut using sticks, mud, grass and trees branches
People lived in groups of up to 1000 members
Man developed speech or spoken language
Man wore clothes made from animal skins, fibres and barks of trees
He decorated his body using red ochre and beads

Art and craft

Man continued painting animal and hunting scenes and other designs
Man learnt to make rough baskets and pots

Religion and government

Man started performing rites and ceremonies to influence natural forces e.g. rain drought and death
He started burying the dead with some of their tools and possessions showing man believed in life after death
Man developed a way of maintaining law and order where he lived and this was the beginning of government

Agriculture and trade

Man started growing crops and keeping animals
With development of agriculture there was surplus food which man exchanged with what he lacked leading to development of trade

CHAPTER 3: DEVELOPMENT OF AGR. AND ANIMAL DOMESTIFICATION

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history and Government form 1 Topics

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RELATED: C.R.E NOTES

HISTORY & GOVERNMENT TOPICS

1. INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

The meaning of History
The meaning of Government
Sources of information on History and Government
Importance of studying History and Government

2. eARLY MAN

Origin of man
Evolution of man
Cultural and economic practices of Early Man.

3. DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Development of early agriculture
Early agriculture in:
- a) Egypt
- b) Mesopotamia
The Agrarian Revolution in:
- a) Britain
- b) U.S.A
The food situation in Africa and the rest of the Third World
Remedies of food shortages

related: history question and answer

4. The people of Kenya up to the century

Origin, migration and settlement of the people of Kenya
- a) Bantu
  - i. Western Bantu
  - ii. Eastern Bantu
- b) Nilotes
  - i. River-Lake Nilotes
  - ii. Plains Nilotes
  - iii. Highland Nilotes
- c) Cushites
  - i. Eastern Cushites
  - ii. Southern Cushites
Results of the migration and settlement of the people of Kenya.

5. Socio-economic and political organization of Kenyan community in the century

Bantu
- a) Agikuyu
- b) Ameru
- c) Akamba
- d) Abagusii
- e) Mijikenda
Nilotes
- a) Luo
- b) Nandi
- c) Maasai
Cushites
- a) Borana
- b)Somali

6. Contacts between east Africa and the outside world up to the century

Early visitors to the East African Coast up to 1500.
Trade between the East African Coast and the outside World.
- a) Development of the trade
- b) Organization of the trade
- c) Impact of the trade on the peoples of East Africa
The corning of the Portuguese
- a) Reasons for their coming to East Africa
- b) Their conquest and rule
- c) The decline of Portuguese power
- d) Impact of Portuguese rule
Establishment and impact of Omani rule:
- a) Seyyid Said and the development of plantation agriculture
- b) Development, organisation and consequences of:
  - i) Long distance trade
  - ii) International trade
The spread of Christianity:
- a) Reasons for the coming of Christian missionaries
- b) Missionary activities and challenges
- c) Effects of missionary activities

7. Citizenship

Kenyan citizenship
Rights of a citizen
Responsibilities of a citizen
Elements of good citizenship

8. National integration

National Integration
- Meaning
- Importance
National Unity
- Factors promoting national unity
- Factors limiting national unity
Conflict Resolution
- Meaning of the term ‘conflict’
- Methods of resolving conflicts
- Process of resolving conflicts

NEXT: INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

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PREVIOUSLY: HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT FORM 1 TOPICS

MEANING OF HISTORY

It is the study of all human experiences and record of events in relation to the environment.
Is a branch of knowledge which deals with the past events of human beings and their response to their environment over the years.
Is a science concerned with past human actions.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of the term ‘History’
b) explain the meaning of the term ‘Government’
c) identify the sources of information on History and Government
d) explain the importance of studying History and Government

COURSE OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

The meaning of History
The meaning of Government
Sources of information on History and Government
Importance of studying History and Government

KCSE PAST PAPERS PLUS TOPICAL QUIZ

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Two periods of history

1. PRE-HISTORY

This is the study of history of man in the distant past relies on excavated materials and fossils.

2. HISTORY

This is the study of the man in known times. Relies on raw data from raw narrations or written works

Branches of history

Political history

It is the study of government and leaders. It analyses of political thinkers and their styles of leadership

Economic history

It is the study of the way of earning a living. It deals with economic activities in a different environment e.g. agriculture, industry, trade, transport and communication, hunting and gathering etc

Social history

It is the study of the way of the people lived together, their way of building, dressing, eating, religion, medicine and education

Meaning of government

It is the method of ruling or exercising power or authority over a country or a state or a city and its people.
It can also mean the management of nation, country or state (i.e. those people who oversee the running of the nation, country or state)

Types of governments

Democratic government

It requires the rulers to regularly seek public mandate through popular vote. The elected officials represent the wishes of the people.

Aristocratic government

It is a form of government in which a group from the highest social class in the society rules over the others.

Monarchial government

Power is passed from parent to children. King or queen is the head of state

Dictatorial government

It’s system of government where the ruler has the total power over the subjects

Anarchy

It is a state of lawlessness or absence of government. People do whatever they want

Characteristics of government

Rules

These are rules that govern members to ensure that life run smoothly for the benefit of all

Sovereignty

This led us to the supreme authority of the government to exercise power within its boundaries

Legitimacy

A government should be acceptable to the people over whom it power

Jurisdiction

This is the geographical area within which the government exercises power and enforces law and rules

Law enforcement

The government is able to take action against those who broke the law

Importance of studying history

We learn about the economic, social and political organization of different people.
Help us to appreciate the value of others and their contribution to civilization.
Enables people to appreciate and understanding their past way of life.
History trains us to develop the capacity for critical analysis of historical data.
It creates a sense of patriotism and national pride is developed.
It also fosters empathy –the ability to understand how people think and feel and their positions and roles in society
Is also a way of preparing the community or society for life.
Provides intellectual fulfillment and interest in further learning
It is also an integral study that accounts and records social and physical happenings in the time and space for the confirmation of man
Can also lead the learner to respected professionals such as law, business management, teaching, administration etc

Importance of studying government

It enables us to understand how laws are made and implemented.
It helps us to understand the structures of government and reasons why we need a government.
Help us to understand our rights and responsibilities as citizens.
Help us to understand duties of our leaders in government.
It enables us to compare our government of the world.
It helps the learner to appreciate the constitution and constitution making process.
By studying the system of the government of other countries, political leaders can choose the best system principles.
One understands how the three arms of government operate.

Sources of information on history and government

Unwritten sources
Written sources
Electronic sources

1. Unwritten sources

Refers to historical information which is not recorded in writing
It includes:

Oral traditions
Linguistics
Anthropology
Archeology
Paleontology
Genetics

a. Oral traditions

Refers to the process of passing information by a word of mouth from one generation to the next
Forms of oral traditions:

Fork tales
Proverbs
Songs
Myths
Legends
Poems

Advantages

It is important in the study of pre-history.
They integrate the study of history with other social studies.
It is cheap as it doesn’t require experts or special equipment.
It complements other sources of history

Disadvantages

The stories may be exaggerated. It’s hard to tell what is real and what is imagined.
Some information may be forgotten or omitted since human memory is not precise.
The stories may be changed for various reasons.
It does not provide dates or sequence of events.
It is expensive as one has to pay for transport, lunch and accommodation of informant.
It is time consuming interviewing people, takes a lot of time.

b. Linguistics

This is the scientific study of languages.
Advantages

Gave information about the movement of people and their relationships
Help us to understand communities, better as people with common language may have common origin.
Helps those using oral tradition to gather information from various sources.
Has enabled historical linguistics to discover links between different people which were previously unknown.
It is useful in dating of the migration of people.

Limitations /disadvantages

It may take a longer period to learn a particular language and therefore delay the acquisition of information
When translating the language the historians may omit some words.
Different languages may have similar words with different meanings.
There has also been borrowing of words from other languages and this has interfered with or corrupted the parent language
A linguist may find some of the words from different groups difficult to understand.
Some languages have become archaic or extinct and are therefore difficult to translate.

c. Anthropology

It is the study of human beings, their origin development, customs, beliefs, and social relationships.
Concerns itself with present day social organizations in relation to customs, cultural values, institutions, forms of government, and systems of marriage, inheritance descent and religious practices.
It gives deeper understanding of a particular of a peopled culture.
Advantages

It can help to reveal similarities in the institution of different communities and possible interactions.
It complements other sources of information in gathering historical data.
It gives a deeper understanding of a particular aspect of people’s culture.
It can identify a particular community with a certain material culture e.g. name
Information is easily obtained from the surrounding.

Disadvantages

It is expensive as it involves a lot of travelling
It is time consuming living for long in the community under study
Anthropologists risks losing their culture and adopting a foreign culture
The anthropologist may it difficult to adapt fully to the new community.

d. ARCHAEOLOGY

Is the study of material remains from the past human life and culture

Examples include:

Stone tools
metal objects
Pottery
Graves
Wooden implements
Remains of plants and animals
Carbonized seeds
Baskets
Remains of charcoals
The beads

Dating fossils in archaeology
Methods used to locate an archaeological site

Radio carbon 14 dating
Potassium argon dating
Stratigraphy
Geological dating
Lexicon-statistics
Statistical

Chemical dating
Radio-carbon dating
It is a measure of the amount of carbon remaining in a fossil or artifact.
Potassium argon
It is a measure of potassium remaining in a fossil or artifact due to volcanic eruption.
Stratigraphy
It studies the layers of successive deposits of rocks
Fission track dating
Studies the age of artifact from the amount of uranium remaining in the track of rock
Statistical dating
The age of objects is determined through association of events with names
Advantages of archaeology

Gives detailed information on material culture.
It complements other sources of information.
It gives a sense of time as artifacts can be dated.
It is useful in providing information about man in the pre-historical times
It makes history real through seeing and touching objects
It earns the country money as people come to view remains and historical sites.

Disadvantages

It’s expensive to hire laborers to excavate and analyze the artifacts
It’s sometimes difficult to locate a site
Its time consuming to excavate and analyze the data
Some remains are fragile and can disintegrate during excavation
The information may not be accurate as it is based conclusions and reconstruction
The dates may not be accurate as they exact as they are only estimates
It’s difficult to differentiate between the bones of an animals and human beings
Climate may affect the remains and some may decay
There are very few archaeological experts and facilities for interpreting archaeological remains in Kenya.
It’s hard to identify exactly who the people were and the language they spoke.
Where there is large-scale excavation it may environmental destruction.

BIOLOGY NOTES

KCSE BIOLOGY NOTES

ENGLISH NOTES

English KCSE Set Books

KCPE PAST PAPERS

KCPE PAST PAPERS AND ANSWERS

Writing means making letters or any other symbols on a surface for the purpose of the communication.
Includes:

Archives
Constitutions
Journals
magazines
biography
newspapers
documentaries
arrival reports
periodicals
paintings

Advantages

Are more accurate than oral sources
Methods of analysis used with written records are cheaper as is the case with oral information.
Can be easily translated to many convectional languages
Information may be stored for future reference.
They are reliable as they can be easily changed

Disadvantages

It relies on oral traditions and archaeology to construct history to construct history for the period when writing had not delivered.
Authors may omit essential information for one reason or another rendering if unreliable.
It may be understood or misinterpreted by leaders either to disc red it the authors or suits one’s seed
They are only limited to literate
Authors write from their particular point of view and may be biased
The cost of newspapers and books are high
Reading written records is time consuming
Written information may become obsolete because life is dynamic and many changes occur over the years
Some written sources are inaccessible as government and other organization restrict it access.

e. Written sources

f. Genetics

This is the scientific study of the ways in which characteristics are passed from parents to their offspring.
Refers to the scientific study of passing on of characteristics from parent to offspring
Advantages

Information is accurate as real materials and remains are analyzed.
Information can be obtained for millions of years ago
Enables historians to trace the origin of domestication and spread of crops and animals
Compliments other sources of history

Disadvantages

It is expensive as it involves laboratory analysis of specimens
It is time consuming to obtain results
It can only be used by experts

2. Printed sources

books
journals
novels
plays
newspapers
magazines
newsletters
photographs

3. Electronic sources

microfilms
pictures
films
radio
television
computers
data banks and data bases

Advantages

They capture information as it happened.
Films and videos give better understanding of some aspects of social history of a given people.
They make past come alive today.
Documentaries give facts about events
Electronic data bases which are stored in a computer facilitate easy and fast retrieval of information

Disadvantages

Most records contains foreign materials which carries the bias
They may be in accurate
Electronic gadgets are expensive
Some films are unrealistic and therefore contain exaggerated information
Some are addictive and may make those are watching passive and lazy

NEXT: CHAPTER 2 - EARLY MAN

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Local Authorities in Kenya - KCSE HISTORY NOTES

10/5/2017

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LOCAL AUTHORITIES IN KENYA

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

describe types of local authorities in Kenya
discuss the functions of local authorities
analyse the relationship between local authorities and the Central Government
discuss the challenges facing local authorities in Kenya.

Table of Contents

LOCAL AUTHORITIES IN KENYA

Types of local authorities
Functions of local authorities
Relationship between local authorities and the central government
Challenges facing local authorities

Works Cited

KCSE HISTORY TOPICAL QUESTIONS

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History- kcse analysis

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Social, Economic and Political Developments and Challenges in Africa since Independence - K.C.S.E HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT NOTES

9/5/2017

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Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

Analyse the political, social and economic challenges in Africa since independence.

Table of Content

Political challenges that have faced African countries since independence
Economic challenges facing independent African states today
Social challenges that have faced African states since independence

Works Cited

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Social, Economic and Political Developments and Challenges in Tanzania since Independence - kcse history notes

9/5/2017

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Lesson Objectives

By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

discuss the political, social and economic developments in Tanzania since independence

Table of Content

Political Developments in Tanzania since Independence
Social Developments in Tanzania since Independence.
Economic Developments in Tanzania since Independence
Political Challenges That Tanzania Has Faced Since Independence.
Social Problems, Which Tanzania Faced Since Independence

Works Cited

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SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHALLENGES IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO (DRC) SINCE INDEPENDENCE - KCSE HISTORY NOTES

7/5/2017

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Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

Discuss the political, social and economic developments in The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) since independence

Table of Content

Political Developments in Democratic Republic Of Congo since Independence
Economic Developments in DRC since Independence
Social Developments and Challenges in DRC since Independence.
Political Challenges That the Democratic Republic Of Congo Has Faced Since Independence.
Economic Challenges That Democratic Republic of Congo (D.R.C) Faced In 1970’s.

Works Cited

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The National Land Commission - kcse history notes

7/5/2017

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Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

Discuss the political developments in Kenya since independence
Discuss the social and economic developments in Kenya since independence
Analyse the political, social and economic challenges in Kenya since Independence.

Table of Content

Functions of the National Land Commission.
Development in Agriculture since Independence
Challenges Facing Kenya’s Agricultural Sector.
Industrial Developments in Kenya since Independence
Factors That Facilitated Industrial Development in Kenya since the Colonial Era
Measures Taken By the Kenyan Government to Promote Industrial Development since Independence
Factors That Have Hindered Industrial Development in Kenya
Social Development and Challenges since Independence.
Education Commissions.
Main Developments in Education in Kenya since Independence
Measures Taken To Improve the Health Sector in Postcolonial Kenya
Major Challenges Facing The Health Sector In Kenya.
Ways through Which the Government Has Encouraged the Preservation of African Culture since Independence.

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MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY IN KENYA SINCE 1991

7/5/2017

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Factors that led to the development of multi-party democracy in Kenya after 1991

International pressure from multilateral and bilateral donors. The western donors took advantage of the collapse of the Soviet Union to set the stringiest conditionalities for aid on the government, for democratic reforms.
Disunity in KANU. There was pressure from individuals who had been expelled from KANU without political alternatives.
Existence of people who were ready to push democratic agenda ahead. This included the civil society, the lawyers and intellectuals. E.g the Law Society of Kenya led by Paul Muite and Gitobu Imanyara put pressure on the government for reforms.
Success of multi-party in other African countries. In Zambia for example, Chiluba’s Movement for Multiparty Democracy defeated Kaunda’s United National Independence Party.
Pressure from the church. Several church leaders, among them Alexander Muge, Bishop Henry Okullu and Rev. Timothy Njoya called upon the government to create an en environment in which Kenyans could participate in governance.
Massive rigging of the elections. The most notorious of all was the 1988 general elections, which were marred with widespread rigging.
The developments in Eastern Europe. Due to Gorbachev’s liberal reforms, one party dictatorship in Eastern Europe was replaced by regimes that were more liberal.
Rampant corruption in particular, embezzlement and misappropriation of public funds and grabbing of public assets. Those who criticized were punished through detention, arbitrary arrests and other forms of intimidation. i) Repeal of section 2A of the constitution in December 1991

Role played by political parties in government and national building in Kenya.

The party that gunners majority of seats and votes forms the government either alone or in coalition with other parties.
Political parties influence government affairs and development through participation in legislation process.
Political parties through the elected members of parliament decide on national development policies and development projects.
Political parties provide exemplary leadership founded on freedom , justice, fair play and African socialism.
Opposition parties provide a system of scrutinizing government expenditure through public accounts committee and public investment committee.
Opposition parties make the government more accountable to the people through constant criticism.
Opposition parties provide checks and balances to abuse and misuse of powers and privileges by those in the government.

Challenges of multi-party democracy in Kenya

Since many politicians and senior government officials were not ready for Multipartism, they often incited their supporters to kick out opposition supporters from certain regions. This has been common in the Rift Valley region.
The executive arm and the ruling party have many a times misused the members of the civil service to frustrate the opposition. In case of flawed elections, the provincial administration has always been used in rigging.
Many of the parties formed failed to attain a national outlook. They mainly were tribal based.
The multi party democracy has been hampered with defection of greedy politicians who become preys to bribes. This has weakened some parties.
The former KANU for a long time retained control of the government machinery,,(the police force, the radio and television.) these were utilized for the advantage of KANU for al long time.
There has been a problem of lack of funding from the government. Most of the political parties have been unable to sustain competition for political power due to inadequate funds.
Interference by the international community in the running of the country. Some members of the diplomatic community openly side with certain political parties.
Many political parties have been embroiled in wrangles. For example the Orange Democratic Movement has been bedevilled with a number of desertions due to wrangles between Ruto and his supporters and Raila Odinga. Ford Kenya has split into New Ford Kenya and Ford Kenya due to wrangles between Eugene Wamalwa and Moses Wetangula.

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Identify the disadvantages of multiparty system.

Multipartism tends to divide the people on tribal, regional and sectarian line.
It tends to sharpen the struggle for personality and group dominance rather than policy implementation.
Multipartism is a foreign system, which does not conform to the aspirations of independent Africa.
It encourages the politics of destabilization.
Political statements deadlocks on debates and tensions become too common.
Decisions take too long to be made and implemented.
Encourages use of violence in a state since opposition party members will be regarded as traitors by the government. The government will be regarded as oppressors by the opposition.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES:
Economic challenges that have faced Kenya since independence

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Stagnation of investment in the first years of independence due to massive transfer of capital from the country by the white settlers. The government faced the challenge of cultivating investor confidence.
The problem of landlessness among many Africans whose arable land had been alienated. There was an urgent need for redistribution.
Serious economic disparity in the country with the former white highlands having adequate provision of water, electricity and roads while the rest lacked enough of the same.
Overpopulation in urban areas as result of rural-urban migration, putting facilities under pressure and creating unemployment.
Problem of control of economy by the Europeans prior to independence and after independence. E.g. farm ownership and key industries.
Lack of qualified manpower to run the technical sectors of the economy.

These were issues that were addressed by session paper number 10 of 1965.

Types of landholding in Kenya.

Land tenure refers to the terms and conditions under which land is acquired, used or transferred

At independence the type of landholding in Kenya was mainly communal, where land belonged to the whole community. Access to land was open every member of a social group. Community elders, clan heads or kings were empowered to control and give advice on land use.

Land alienation during the colonial period transformed land into a commodity that could be disinherited from an individual. Such colonial land policies leading to alienation of African land resulted in the following;

Widespread landlessness as Africans lost ancestral lands.
Reduction in land available to Africans leading to land pressure as population increased.
Deterioration of the quality of land due to fragmentation.
Overstocking because of limited land, leading to soil erosion.
Displacement of pastoral and agricultural communities, leading to problems such as famine and livestock diseases.
Disintegration of social and cultural institutions in the reserves due to ethnic boundaries being fixed, thus separating African communities.

The Mau Mau wars which were a consequent of the bitterness arising from land alienation resulted in a number of land reforms under the Swynnerton Plan of 1954. The plan put in place a programmee for land consolidation, adjudication and registration. This was what the Kenya government inherited at independence.

Land Adjudication: - verification of individual or group rights to land within a given area.
Land consolidation: - merging of fragmented land into single economic units.
Land registration: - recording of rights to land and the consequent issuance of a title deed.

The post-colonial landholding system in Kenya.

The land tenure system in Kenya after independence was categorized as private or modern, communal or customary, public or state and open access
Private land; comprised of 6% of the total land area

Government-owned; former crown land, comprised 20% of the land area. It included the national parks, government or public forests, alienated (land acquired from customary land owners by government for own use or private development) and un alienated land (land that has not been leased or allocated by the government).

Trust land comprised 64% of the total land area as at 1990. This comprised the former native areas and was awaiting small holder registration to transform it into private tenure system.

Land ownership in Kenya has been a source of bitter conflict as manifested in the post election violence after the 2007 elections. The historical injustices in Kenya have always been related to land.
In 2010, land ownership in Kenya was classified as follows under the new constitution.

Public land
Community land
Private land

a) Public land

Public land is the land held by the central or local government.
It consists of;

Land not set aside for any purpose (unalienated land).
Land set aside for public utility use or land that is occupied by the State organ as lessee.
land transferred to the State by way of sale, reversion or surrender;
Land to which no individual or community ownership is traceable.
Land which no heir can be identified.
All minerals and mineral ores.
government forests, game reserves, water catchment areas, national parks, government animal sanctuaries, and specially protected areas;
All roads and thoroughfares.
All rivers, lakes and other water bodies.
The territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone and the sea bed.
The continental shelf.
All land between the high and low water marks.
Any other land declared to be public land by an Act of Parliament.

Community land

Community land is land which is implied as owned by a group of people on the basis of customary norms, not through formal registration.
It consists of:

Land registered in the name of group representatives.
Land transferred to a specific community through a legal process.
Any other land declared to be community land by an Act of Parliament.
land that is held, managed or used by specific communities as community forests, grazing areas or shrines;
Ancestral lands and lands traditionally occupied by hunter gatherer communities;
Land held as trust land by the county governments, but not including any public land held in trust by the county government.

Private land

Private land is land (and houses and buildings) held under registered entitlement (freehold or leasehold).
It consists of:

Registered land held by any person under freehold tenure.
Land held by any person under leasehold tenure.
Any other land declared private land under an Act of Parliament.

Note:

Landholding by non-citizens is allowed only through lease for a period not exceeding ninety-nine years.
A corporate body, for the purpose of land ownership can only be recognized as a citizen if it is wholly owned by one or more citizens.
Property held in trust will only be recognized as being held by a citizen if all the beneficial interest of the trust is held by the persons who are citizens.

Land policies since independence

Two type of programme that characterized land reforms exercise that commenced in 1963 in Kenya were;

Transfer of land from European large scale farmers to Africans.
Land consolidation and registration in which the government purchased several farms from the Europeans and sub-divided them among African holders.

In the former European farms, the government established settlement schemes as follows;

The Million Acre Scheme which was began in 1963 and involved settling African families on 13.5 hectares each.
The Harambee Scheme started in 1969, involved settling families on 16.25 hectares each.
The Haraka Scheme where squatters were settled in small plots of land in Central, Coast, Eastern and Rift Valley Provinces.
Shirika Scheme started in 1971 to settle the landless and unemployed on the former European lands. Under this scheme, the individual farmers would own a small plot each while the rest of the farm would be managed by a cooperative. This scheme did not succeed since people wished to have their own pieces of land.

However, these schemes failed to adequately solve the problems of landlessness in the country. A few politically-connected people acquired large tracts of land, most of which remained underutilized. Some of the schemes are located in areas of harsh climatic conditions and are unviable without irrigation.

Several commissions have addressed land issues in Kenya. For example, in 2001, President Moi appointed the Njonjo Commission to investigate the main problems of land ownership and distribution in Kenya. In 2003, the NARC government set up the

Ndung’u Commission on land. Its Recommendations are yet to be implemented.

By 1983, 29 districts in Kenya had benefitted from Land adjudication and registration, a process which began in the 1950s in Central Kenya then spread to other parts of the country after 1963.

Benefits of the land reforms in Kenya

Farmers could use their land title deeds to get loans from banks in order to expand farming on their land.
Land titles enabled people to purchase land with confidence. No one would alienate them from their land.
The reforms enabled thousands of landless people to own land.
Dairy and cash crop production increased.

Land ownership by non-citizens

A non-citizen can only own land in the country on the basis of leasehold tenure not exceeding 99 years.

Principles that govern utilization of land in Kenya

Equitable access to land. All members of the society must have equal access to land since it is an important resource.
Transparent and cost effective administration of land. State institutions should be given powers and responsibilities of ensuring transparent and accountable administration of land.
Elimination of gender discrimination. in line with protection of human rights, for all, discrimination against women on issues of land ownership and access to land need be eliminated.
Sustainable and productive management of land resources. Since land is an economic resource, it should be managed well to ensure maximum productivity.
Sound conservation and protection of ecologically sensitive areas. Conservation measures like prohibiting settlement and agricultural activities in water catchment areas and zoning of forest lands to protect them from further degradation.
Encouragement of communities to settle land disputes. This should happen as long as they are consistent with the constitution.

Ways in which the Kenya government has solved land related problems since independence.

The problems related to Communal Land ownership have been solved through land demarcation and adjudication by the government. This saw the conversion from traditional system of land ownership to modern freeload tenure.
Landlessness was solved through creation of resettlement schemes. Large-scale farms and former European farms were divided into smaller ones and given to the landless. E.g Mwea Tebere, Bura, Shirika etc.
The government has put marginal lands to more productive use through establishment of irrigation schemes and drainage schemes.
The government removed restriction of movements from the reserves that were created by the colonial government. This decongested the reserves and gave chance to arable farming.
At independence, the t government embarked on land consolidation policy through which scattered plots were put into one holding.
The government also embarked on land reclamation measure to bring previously unused land to productive use.
The Government has established the National Land Commission which manages public land

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Chapter 28: Social, Economic and Political Developments and Challenges in Kenya Since Independence

3/5/2017

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POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHALLENGES;

It must be noted that Kenya inherited a number of political problems from the colonial government. For example;

Lack of African technocrats who could give political direction to the country.
Suspicion and jealousy between different communities due to the divide-and-rule tactic employed by the colonial administration for many years.
An illiterate population, ignorant of its political obligations

Political developments in Kenya between 1963 and 1991

On 12th December 1963, Kenya became independent under KANU led by Jomo Kenyatta. In 1964, there was voluntary disbanding of KADU and APP making Kenya a de facto one party state. There was abolition of Federal Constitution in favour of a Unitary or Republican Constitution.

The post of an executive president was created to replace the post of Prime Minister. In 1966, the Limuru conference presided over replacement of the Vice-President of KANU With seven Provincial Vice Presidents and one for Nairobi Area.

On 14th April 1966, Oginga Odinga resigned from KANU and Government and formed Kenya People’s Union (KPU) where Bildad Kaggia, Achieng Oneko and Tom Odongo joined him.

In 1966, the bicameral legislature (the senate and the House of Representatives) was disbanded. A single –chamber parliament was established.
In 1966, Joseph Murumbi was appointed the country’s vice-president to replace Oginga.
He resigned in 1967to pave way for Moi’s appointment.

1969 witnessed the political assassination of the flamboyant Tom Mboya in the hands of one, Nahashon Njenga on 5th July on Nairobi’s Moi Avenue.
1n 1969, KPU was banned following riots in Kisumu.

In 1975, Josiah Mwangi Kariuki. MP for Kinangop was found brutally murdered in Ngong Forest.

In October 1975 martin Shikuku and the deputy speaker, Jean Marie Seroney, were arrested and detained for making claims in the house that KANU and parliament were dead.

In 1976, Chelagat Mutai, MP for Eldoret North was arrested and jailed for 2½ years for inciting his constituents to violence. In 1977, George Anyona, MP for Kitutu was also arrested after he accused the government of corruption.

In 1976, the change the constitution campaign was began by Kihika Kimani, Dr. Njoroge Mungai, Jackson Angaine, Paul Ngei and Njenga Karume with the objective of making sure that the then vice president, Daniel Arap Moi would not succeeded the president. On 22nd august 1978, Jomo Kenyatta died and Moi assumed presidency for 90 days and was finally elected as second president of Kenya.

In July 1980, Moi banned all tribal organizations, the Kenya Civil Servants Union and the Nairobi University Staff Union.

In June 1982, after an attempt by Anyona to form a political party, section 2A was introduced in the Kenyan constitution making it a de jure one party state.
On 2nd august 982, Kenya experienced a coup d’etat by some air force servicemen.

Charles Njonjo, the Constitutional Affairs Minister was accused of masterminding the coup.

In 1988, KANU introduced the infamous Queue voting method (mlolongo) that was open to abuse.

In February 1990, Dr, Robert Ouko, minister of foreign affairs and international cooperation was murdered.

The better part of 1991 witnessed a series of tribal clashes involving Kalenjin and Kikuyu, Kalenjin and Luhya and Luos.

Kenya’s political developments from 1991 up to 2011

In December 1991, a parliamentary act repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. The first political party to be formed under the repealed act was Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) In august 1992, one of the leaders of FORD Masinde Muliro died mysteriously.

The first multiparty elections were held in 1992 in December. KANU won against a disjointed opposition.

In 1994, the official leader of the opposition and MP of Bondo, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga died.

After 1997 elections, the Inter-Parliamentary Parties Group ((IPPG) passed the reforms that marked the genesis of the constitutional review process.

In 2002, several opposition parties formed a coalition that overwhelmingly defeated KANU in the general elections.

In January 2003, the National Rainbow Coalition formed the new government with Mwai Kibaki as the president.

In august 2003, Wamalwa Kijana, the vice president of the coalition government died after a short illness. Mood Awori was appointed the next Vice president.

In 2005, a new political movement, the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) was formed as a campaign tool against the proposed new constitution. Raila Odinga was its leader.

The general Elections of 2007 resulted in a political crisis that provoked an unprecedented wave of political violence and killing across Kenya.

On 28th February 2008 the former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan succeeded in brokering a power sharing deal between the incumbent President, Mwai Kibaki, and the opposition leader, Raila Odinga thus bringing to end the political violence.

On April 17, 2008, Raila Odinga, from Orange Democratic Movement, was sworn as Prime Minister of Kenya, after more than forty years of the abolition of office.

On 28th august 2010 Kenya promulgated a new constitution thus making it the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution.

In 2011, the International Criminal Court seating at the Hague, begun criminal proceedings against Uhuru Kenyatta, William Ruto, former police Commissioner Hussein Ali, Henry Kosgei, the head of public service Francis Muthaura and a journalist Joshua Arap Sang over their involvement in the 2008 post-Election Violence.

In June 2011, Dr. Willy Mutunga became the first Kenya’s Chief Justice and Nancy Makokha Barasa, his deputy under the new constitution.

The Electoral Commission of Kenya (ECK) was also replaced with the Independent Elections and Boundaries Commission (IEBC

The constitutional changes in Kenya in the period between 1963 and 1991

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The first meeting in Lancaster in 1960 resulted in an interim constitution that failed to grant any substantial autonomy to Kenya.

The second Lancaster conference in 1962 negotiated a framework for self government.
The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by the British Parliament

The 1963 constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion.

It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister.

The Constitution was changed in 1964 and Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The senate and regions were also abolished.

In 1966, the voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two-thirds of the
MPs. The term ‘region’ was replaced with ‘province.’

In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate.

On 28th April 1966, an amendment was passed to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election.

In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security.

In 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries. In 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his

death was laid down. The age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years.

In 1974, an amendment of the constitution empowered the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei.

In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembly.

In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community. Voting age was lowered from 21 to 18

In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assembly. In 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya.

In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and Auditor–General was removed. Office of chief secretary was abolished.

In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed.

A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December.

Steps towards realization of a new constitution in Kenya since 1997

In 1997, Parliament passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms. The Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC) was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a draft constitution).
In 2005, after many years of struggle, the draft constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders.
28 February 2008 The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga put in place arrangement for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya
In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray (South Africa) Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda.
23 February 2009 Members of the CoE were appointed by the President were later on sworn in
On 17 November 2009 CoE released the draft to the public and invited views and comments on the draft constitution,
By 23rd February 2010. CoE had submitted the final draft of constitution to the Parliamentary Select Committee.
On 4th august 2010 Kenya held a Constitutional Referendum where the new constitution was overwhelmingly endorsed.
On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution.

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Chapter 27: National Philosophies (Kenya)

3/5/2017

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AFRICAN SOCIALISM.
Meaning and origin of African Socialism.

The Sessional paper No.10 of 1965 defines African socialism as an African political, economic system that is positively African, and capable of incorporating useful and compatible techniques from whatever source.
African socialism was born out of the desire by our leaders to create a new society, different from the colonial society and which embraced equity devoid of racism, oppression and other social injustices.

Main features that characterized African socialism in Kenya

Political Democracy where all people are politically free and equal
Various forms of ownership of wealth. E.g. free enterprise allowing private ownership of property, nationalization policy for key industries, partnership with private sector
Mutual social responsibility. That the spirit of service and not greed for personal gain motivate Kenyans.
A range of control to ensure that property is used in mutual interests of society and its members.
Progressive taxation to ensure an equitable distribution of wealth and income.
Diffusion of ownership to avoid concentration of economic power on a few people in the society.

Achievements of African socialism as a National Philosophy

It has led to promotion of democratic process in governance. Multi-partism has been established in Kenya due to African socialism policies. Kenya has also witnessed the growth of the civil society.
Since the philosophy is built on African traditions, it has promoted African cultures Kenya pursued African values consistent with her traditions.
The philosophy has promoted national unity and coexistence among Kenyan communities.
There has been a greater effort to achieve fairness and justice through progressive taxation and a range of other controls. The government has tried to achieve fair distribution of resources through the activities of the District Focus for Rural Development.
The philosophy led to establishment of cooperative societies in Kenya. This has promoted social and economic development in Kenya.
African socialism has promoted agricultural development through the land tenure system that was undertaken to ensure settlement of the landless in settlement schemes like Bura.
Social development in education and health has been achieved. Discrimination in schools, hospitals and residential areas stopped. Uniform systems were adopted.
The philosophy gave Africans the right to participate in their economy. This was through the policy of Africanization in which industrial enterprises hitherto owned by Asians and Europeans, changed ownership.
African socialism has encouraged rapid development in Kenya. The policy of mutual social responsibility through self-help promotes a sense of patriotism and service to the nation as Kenyans work together to build the nation.

Problems that faced African socialism

Progressive taxation has put an additional burden of taxation on the poor thus discouraging development.
Political interference in public projects and wrangles among leaders retards development.
The spirit of unity and cooperation and self-help has been discouraged by misappropriation of funds.
Corruption leads to negative attitude from people towards contributing to national development.

HARAMBEE PHILOSOPHY:
Meaning and origin of Harambee philosophy

Harambee is a Kiswahili slogan, which means pulling together or working together. It was a development strategy in which, people supplemented government efforts through voluntary contribution.

Mzee Jomo Kenyatta made it a national Motto in 1963 when he aptly advanced it as unity in all causes of national integrity and human progress.

The Harambee spirit embodies ideals of assistance, joint effort, mutual social responsibility and community self-reliance.
Harambee projects are categorized as;

Social Projects. Educational institutions and facilities, medical centres, recreational facilities and religious institutions.
Economic projects. Construction of rural access roads, bridges and culverts, agricultural and livestock activities.

Principles that guide the Harambee spirit.

It is a development strategy that is aimed at mobilizing the people at local level to participate in their development
Participation is guided by the principles of collective good as opposed to individual gain. Harambee efforts should be directed towards community projects rather than individual projects.
The choice of project is supposed to be guided by the felt needs of the majority. Participants should be involved in decision making.
In the implementation of projects, there should be maximum utilization of the local resources such as labour, materials and money.

Contribution of Harambee movement to the development of Kenya.

Harambee movement has led to development of education in Kenya through Harambee fundraising to construct schools and colleges.
Funds have been collected through Harambee to improve infrastructural facilities such as roads, rural electrification and provision of water.
Collective participation in development programmes by people from different groups has promoted national unity.
It has helped inculcate hard work in the people of Kenya. This has in turn encouraged various ethnic groups to develop their respective areas.
Harambee projects especially in rural areas have attracted foreign donors especially the NGO’S
Has led to re-distribution of resources as people with more funds have participated in the development projects in the less developed areas.
Funds have been raised through Harambee to help the less fortunate members of the society. For example, President Moi 8th April 1989 held a Mammoth Rally where KSH 70 Million was raised to help the disabled.
Harambee movement has promoted agricultural development e.g., through construction of cattle dips and purchase of farms through Harambee.
Funds raised through Harambee have been used to purchase buses and Matatus to provide transport.

Ways in which the Harambee philosophy has promoted the development of education in Kenya.

Many education institutions have been constructed using funds raised through Harambee effort. Thus enabling many children to attend school.
Many students have been assisted to pay school fees/thus it enables the needy to go on learning.
Physical facilities have been constructed/improved through Harambee. This enables learning in a conducive environment.
Teaching/learning materials have been purchased/ donated to schools to improve the quality of education.
Additional staff/workers in schools have been paid through Harambee contributions by the parents to offset inadequacy.
Through Harambee spirit, well-wishers, thus helping the learners to exploit their talents, have supported co-curricular activities.
School furniture has been bought through Harambee effort thus making learning /teaching comfortable.
Parents have contributed funds to supplement the government’s school feeding programmes thus improving enrolment.

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Problems that face Harambee movement in Kenya

Misuse of Harambee funds/diverting its use and lack of commitment by leaders.
It puts an additional burden of taxation on the poor.
Embezzlement of public funds.
Political interference and wrangles among leaders.
The spirit of unity and co-operation and self-help may be killed by misappropriation of funds.
Poor co-ordination and supervision of Harambee projects.
Use of force or extortion of Harambee funds from the people/dictatorial tendencies.
Corruption and negative attitude from people.
Use of Harambee for political gains.

NYAYOISM.
Meaning and origin of Nyayoism

Nyayoism originally meant footsteps i.e. following the footsteps of Mzee Jomo Kenyatta.
This was a phrase coined by the former president of Kenya Daniel Arap Moi, in reference to his Endeavour to follow the footsteps of his predecessor.
Today, Nyayoism means peace, love and unity that form the pillars of the development philosophy.
It stresses the concept of being mindful of other people’s welfare.
It is closely related to the principal of mutual social responsibility as embodied in African socialism.

Sources of Nyayoism

Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 that articulated African socialism, which is based on collective responsibility and on being mindful of other people’s welfare.
The Biblical teaching of the Ten Commandments, summarized as Love for God, fellow man and oneself.
Moi’s long political career inspired him to develop the philosophy when he realized that national building required love.

Pillars of Nyayoism.

Peace: - the state of being free from war and disorder. Peace is the beginning of sustainable and cumulative progress. Peace promotes development. According to Nyayoism, peace discourages political stability.
Love: - Love brings about trust and readiness to cooperate by working together to foster national development. Lack of love disturbs peace, creates disorder and destroys progress. Love encourages the African culture of sharing through the extended family (communalism).
Unity: - the state of being one, being in harmony or in agreement in objectives and feelings. The diversity of Kenya’s culture, religion, races and language requires that there must be unity for nation-building.

Role played by Nyayoism in national development.

The philosophy formed the basis for solving national development problems. The philosophy perpetuated the Harambee spirit.
The philosophy helped in unifying different communities. The philosophy enhanced cooperation and unity of all.
Nyayoism was used as the rallying spirit for the collective contribution and approach to national development.
Nyayoism discouraged societal evils since it preached love, unity and peace. Corruption was discouraged through the philosophy.
It discouraged all forms of discrimination based on religion, tribe, race, and social status.
The philosophy created respect for public property and functions.
It enabled the creation of a welfare state since everyone became mindful of others welfare.
It created a sense of nationalism and patriotism necessary for national development.

Impact of National Philosophies.
Social Impact of National Philosophies

Education has been promoted through philosophies like the Harambee that have assisted in construction of schools, laboratories and libraries.
Medical services have been improved
Cooperation, understanding and unity have been encouraged since the philosophies emphasized togetherness for nation-building.
The philosophies have promoted the spiritual and social welfare of people by raising their living standards. African socialism encourages people to assist others are share with others.
Through the Harambee spirit, the plight of persons with disabilities and other disadvantaged groups has been looked into.
The philosophies have promoted African cultures, since they are drawn from African traditions.

Economic impacts

Self-reliance and The Africanization process through which the people of Kenya were able to take over from foreigners was made possible by the philosophies.
Due to the policy of pooling together resources and the spirit of cooperation derived from African socialism, cooperative societies have been formed in agriculture and other sectors, thus contributing to the country’s development.
Transport and communication has been improved through African socialism and Harambee spirit. Rural access roads have been constructed; Nyayo buses were bought though the scheme failed due to mismanagement.
The agricultural sector has been boosted by the philosophies. Kenyans are encouraged to work hard to increase food production.
The pillars of Nyayoism have created a conducive atmosphere for growth of tourism and foreign investment in the country.

Political impacts

The philosophies have promoted nationalism and patriotism in the country.
African socialism has encouraged the democratization process as it champions for political equality.
It has promoted international cooperation and understanding

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ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES. ​

THE SHONA

​Political organization of the Mwene Mutapa Empire

​Economic organization of the Shona

Social organization of the Shona

​Importance of Studying History

Importance of studying government

​CAUSES OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR EAST AFRICA.

Factors that contributed to the scramble and partition of East Africa.

​The process of Partition.

The partition of East Africa was sealed through the following two treaties.

​Terms of the Heligoland Treaty of 1890.

​BRITISH OCCUPATION OF KENYA

Methods used by the British to occupy Kenya.

The Imperial British East Africa Company of Sir William Mackinnon was given the royal charter in 1888 and thus had the following new powers;

Achievements of the IBEAC.

Reasons why Britain used the IBEA Company to administer her possession.

Achievements of the IBEAC.

Why company rule had failed by 1895.

​Factors facilitated the establishment of the British control over Kenya during the 19th century

KENYA PEOPLES’ RESPONSES BRITISH INVASION OF KENYA

The Nandi Resistance (1895-1906)

Reasons why the Nandi resisted British occupation of their land.

​Course of the Nandi rebellion.

Why the Nandi offered the longest and strongest ever resistance to the British intrusion in Kenya.

Why the Nandi were defeated in the hands of the British.

Results of the Nandi resistance.

Agiriama resistance.

Causes of the Agiriama resistance.

Course of the resistance.

​Role of Mekatilili in the Agiriama resistance.

Results of the Agiriama resistance to the British

Bukusu resistance.

Reasons why the Bukusu resisted the British rule.

Course of the resistance.

​Methods used by the Bukusu to resist the British.

​Effects of the Bukusu resistance.

The Somali resistance.

Causes of Somali resistance.

Course of the resistance.

Results of the Somali resistance.

​Collaboration

​The Maasai collaboration.

​Reasons for the Maasai collaboration with the British.

The process of Maasai collaboration.

​Results of the Maasai collaboration.

​Wanga Collaboration.

Reasons for Wanga Collaboration.

Process of Wanga Collaboration.

Ways in which Nabongo of Wanga collaborate with the British.

Results of the Wanga collaboration with the British.

Mixed reactions

The Akamba Reaction.

Why the Akamba decided to resist British administration?

Course of the Akamba resistance.

Why a section of the Akamba collaborated with the British.

Reasons for the Akamba defeat.

Consequences of the Akamba reaction.

The Agikuyu reaction.

Explain the causes of Agikuyu resistance.

Reasons why some Agikuyu collaborated.

Organization of the Agikuyu reaction.

Results of the Agikuyu mixed reaction.

The Luo reaction.

Reasons for the resistance against the British by the Luo of Ugenya.

Course of the Luo resistance.

​Results of the Luo reaction.

​INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

​Benefits of international relations

​Ways in which nations relate internationally.

​International Organizations

​Role played by International Governmental Organizations.

​THE UNITED NATIONS

Formation of the United Nations

​Organization of the UNO

​THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

​THE SECURITY COUNCIL

​ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

​TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

​THE SECRETARIAT

ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES.

Political organization of the Mwene Mutapa Empire

Economic organization of the Shona

Importance of Studying History

CAUSES OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR EAST AFRICA.

The process of Partition.

Terms of the Heligoland Treaty of 1890.

BRITISH OCCUPATION OF KENYA

Factors facilitated the establishment of the British control over Kenya during the 19th century

Course of the Nandi rebellion.

Role of Mekatilili in the Agiriama resistance.

Methods used by the Bukusu to resist the British.

Effects of the Bukusu resistance.

Collaboration

The Maasai collaboration.

Reasons for the Maasai collaboration with the British.

Results of the Maasai collaboration.

Wanga Collaboration.

Results of the Luo reaction.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Benefits of international relations

Ways in which nations relate internationally.

International Organizations

Role played by International Governmental Organizations.

THE UNITED NATIONS

Organization of the UNO

THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

THE SECURITY COUNCIL

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

THE SECRETARIAT

THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

SPECIALIZED AGENCIES

Achievements of the United Nations Organization

Problems facing the United Nations Organization in its operation

THE COMMONWEALTH
Origin and structure of Commonwealth of Nations

Membership to commonwealth

Characteristics of commonwealth states

Objectives that led to the formation of the commonwealth nations

Organization of the Commonwealth

Benefits of membership to Commonwealth

Functions of commonwealth (REF to evolving world page 60):
Problems facing Commonwealth of Nations

The creation theory

Why Africa is considered the cradle of man

ARCHAEOLOGICAL sites in east Africa

Uganda

Tanzania

Ethiopia

South Africa

Aegyopithecus (egyptophicus)

Drypithecus africunus (proconsul)

Characteristics

Ramapithecus / kenyapithecus / woodland ape

Australopithecus / zinjanthropus / southern ape

Types of austropithecus

Characteristics

Homo erectus

Characteristics

Types of Homo sapiens

The culture of early man and economic practices

Middle Stone Age period / middle paleolithic

Invention of fire

New Stone Age – upper PALEOLITHIC

MEANING OF HISTORY

Two periods of history

Branches of history

Meaning of government

Types of governments

Characteristics of government

Importance of studying government