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Social  and Economic Developments during the Colonial Period in Kenya

THE CONSTRUCTION OF EAST AFRICAN RAILWAY

The railway construction works commenced in Mombasa in 1896. By 1901, the railway had reached Kisumu (then Port Florence) passing through Nairobi in 1899.

Numerous feeder lines were later laid down as follows;

The Nairobi –Thika Branch(1914), Konza – Magadi (1915), Voi- Moshi(1918), Rongai- Solai (1925), Eldoret-Kitale(1926), Eldoret- Jinja (1927), Gilgil-Nyahururu(1929), Thika- Nanyuki(1930) and Kisumu – Butere(1930)

In 1948, the Kenya Uganda Railway had been linked with the Tanganyika network to become the East African Railways.

Problems experienced during the construction of the Uganda railway.

1. There was insufficient labour since African labour force was not forthcoming. In the case of the Akamba and the Maasai, they were forcefully recruited.
2. The climate of the interior was not suitable for the European labour force. The Europeans constantly fell ill, thus interfering with construction progress.
3. The Arab rebellion under Mbaruk Rashid between 1895 –96 at the coast delayed the railway construction.
4. There was an additional expense of constructing special jetties since Mombasa port was not large enough.
5. The Man-eaters of Tsavo created danger and havoc to the construction works.
6. The rift valley terrain was difficult. It was rugged with many hills and escarpments thus causing difficulties in construction.
7. Hostility of some Kenyan communities to intruders e.g. the Nandi who vandalized the railway and telegraph lines.
8. Insufficient building material since most of them came from Europe and their delivery often delayed,

The effects of railway construction.

1. It led to development of European settler farming in order to make the railway pay for its construction.
2. There was rampant land alienation. The colonial government alienated African land for railway construction forcing communities like the Maasai and Nandi to move into reserves.
3. There was rise of wage labour for the railway and later for the settler farmers.
4. It led to growth of urban centres along the railway line e.g. Nairobi.
5. Railway construction promoted economic growth of the East African region. This is because farm produce and other commercial products could easily reach market.
6. It led to rise of large Asian settlement since many Indians were employed as railway workers. This Asians boosted trade in east Africa.
7. It led to development of other forms of infrastructure like the roads and telecommunication lines. This stimulated trade development.
8. It led to transfer of the administrative capital from Mombasa in 1905 to Nairobi.
9. When the railway reached Kisumu in 1902, it led to major changes to the administrative boundaries within East African region. Initially, the western region up to Naivasha was part of Uganda.
10. The railway became a major revenue source for the colonial authorities.
11. It facilitated the establishment of colonial rule in Kenya since it was possible for rapid movement of troops.
12. It facilitated the cultural and social interaction among the different races.
13. The railway made rural-urban migration and the resultant enterprises such as hawking and charcoal –selling possible.
14. Other forms of transport and communication developed and expanded along the railway line. For example roads and telecommunications.
15. Christian missionaries were able to move into the interior, where they established mission schools.

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Settler Crop cultivation

The main crops cultivated were coffee, wheat, tea and sisal.

1)  Coffee.

Coffee was first introduced by the Roman Catholic Fathers of St. Austin’s Mission near Nairobi in 1889. It required plenty of farm inputs in terms of chemicals and labour. therefore was a preserve of wealthy European settlers.

Coffee Planters Corporation was founded in 1908 by Lord Delamere’s Efforts, and led to the spread in the growing of coffee. By 1913, coffee had become the leading cash crop in Kenya grown mainly in Murang’a, Thika and Kiambu. Africans were unfortunately not allowed to grow coffee until 1937

Reasons why Africans in Kenya were not allowed to grow coffee before 1937.

1. Europeans wanted to continue getting cheap African labour for their farms. This could not be available if Africans were allowed to earn some money through growing of coffee.
2. European settlers did not want to compete with Africans in coffee growing. They feared that it would limit market for their produce.
3. The settlers claimed that Africans did not have knowledge of growing coffee. They claimed that African participation in cash crop growing would lead to low quality products.
4. They feared that diseases would spread from African farms to settler plantations.
5. European settlers claimed that African farmers would produce low quality coffee due to inadequate resources.

2) Wheat.

 It was introduced in Kenya in 1903 by Lord Delamere who experimented on his Njoro farm. It was however until 1912, when a more resistant variety was developed, that wheat growing took root in Kenya.
 
In 1908, Lord Delamere set up Unga Ltd which boosted wheat farming in Kenya. It was grown in the Nakuru and Uasin Gishu areas. Like coffee, wheat farming was the preserve of wealthy European settlers from Australia, Canada, Britain and South Africa. Africans began to grow wheat only after independence.

​3) Sisal.

It was introduced in Kenya from Tanganyika in 1893 by Richard Hindorf, a german Doctor. Initially, it was cultivated around Thika in 1904. By 1920, it had become the second –largest income-earning crop after coffee.

The main sisal growing areas included Baringo, Koibatek, Ol Donyo Sabuk, Ruiru, Thika, Voi, Taita and Taveta.

Africans began growing coffee in 1964 though its growth declined due to the completion it faced from synthetic fibre.

4)  Tea.

Tea was introduced in Kenya in 1903 around Limuru by Messrs Caine Brothers. It was until 1925 when tea began being grown successful with large tea estates being established by tea companies like Brooke Bond and Africa Highland from India.

The main tea growing areas were Nandi, Kericho, Sotik, Nakuru, Murang’a and Kiambu.

Stock rearing.

Lord Delamere carried out many experiments in sheep and cattle rearing at his Equator Ranch in Njoro though the Maasai raids in his farm and cattle diseases frustrated his efforts.

After cross-breeding exotic types with local stock, he came up with more resistant variety The government also set up an experimental livestock farm in Naivasha.

In 1925, the Kenya Cooperative Creameries was established due to Delamere’s efforts. Later, the Uplands Bacon Factory was established near Limuru to promote pig rearing. In 1930, the Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) was established

Colonial land policies in Kenya.

To empower the settlers to take up more arable land in Kenya, the Legislative council passed the following Land Acts or Ordinances;

1. The Indian Acquisition Act (1896). it empowered the authorities to take over land for the railway, government construction and public utilities.
2. The Land Regulations Act (1897). It allowed the government to offer a certificate of occupation and a lease of 99 years. This Act encouraged settlers to take up land left vacant by the Agikuyu due to drought and famine.
3. The East African Land Order in Council (1901). It defined crown land as all public land which was not private. The government could take up any land at will, sell it or lease it for use by settlers.
4. The Crown Land Ordinance (1902). It allowed the government to sell or lease crown land to Europeans at 2 rupees per 100 acres or rent at 15 rupees per 100 acres annually.
5. The Maasai Agreement (1904). It led to creation of the Ngong and Laikipia reserves while the settlers took up Maasai land for livestock farming. For example Lord Delamere in Nakuru.
6. The Elgin Pledge of 1906. The government through the British Secretary of State, Lord Elgin confirmed that the Highlands were reserved for settlers. This barred the Asian attempts to buy land in the highlands.
7. The second Maasai Agreement of 1911. The Maasai were pushed out of the fertile Laikipia reserve to pave way for more European settlement and large scale farming.
8. The Crown Land Ordinance (1915). This provided for land –registration scheme for settlers. It defined crown land as land occupied by and reserved for Africans who could be evicted any time. Farm sizes wee increased from 5,000 to 7,500 acres.
9. The Kenya Annexation Order in Council (1920). It announced that Africans were tenants of the crown even in the reserves.
10. The Land Commission (1924). It fixed boundaries of the reserves, which were later legalized in 1926.
11. The Native Trust Ordinance (1930). It stated that African reserves belonged t the Africans permanently.
12. The Carter Commission (1932). It fixed the boundaries of the white highlands, leading to population pressure in the African reserves. All Africans were removed from the highlands into the reserves.
13. The Kenya Highlands Order in Council (1939). It fixed boundaries of the white highlands and reserved them permanently and exclusively for Europeans.

Effects of the colonial land policies.

1. The displaced Africans were confined to native reserves thus leading to congestion/overuse of land. By 1914, settlers like Lord Delamere and Captain Crogan owned 100,000 and 220,000 acres of land, respectively, at the expense of African congestion in the reserves.
2. Africans who lost their land became poor. Many Africans became squatters and lived in misery and hopelessness.
3. The situation in the reserves and the landlessness forced to supply labour in settler farms for wages in order to pay taxes.
4. The displaced Africans moved to towns looking for employment. Their movement to towns led to growth of urban centres.
5. The traditional socio-economic set-up of the Africans was disrupted. Communities could no longer migrate in search of better lands and pasture. Family roles changed as women increasingly took over headship of families while men sought for paid employment.
6. The large European farms suffered acute shortage of labour as many Africans were unwilling to work on them.
7. It led to the introduction of the Kipande System enforced by the Native Registration Ordinances of 1915 and 1920, to prevent the African labourers from deserting their duties on European farms.
8. Taxes were imposed on Africans and were to be paid only in monetary form. This was meant to compel Africans seek for wage employment.
9. The reserving of the highlands for the whites only denied Indians access to agricultural land, compelling them to resort to businesses and residences in urban areas.
10. Loss of land led to bitterness and made Africans later to form political organizations to demand for their land/spread of nation

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THE DEVONSHIRE WHITE PAPER.

The Mandate of the League of Nations compelled Britain, just like any other colonial authority to institute reforms that would involve addressing African grievances. Governor Edward Northey who had given many concessions to the settlers was recalled to Britain in 1922. Other reforms that were instituted were;

1. Abandonment of Racial segregation policy in Kenya except in the highlands.
2. Allowing Asians to elect four members to the Legco, which was initially settler-dominated. This however was not done until 1933.

In March 1923, settlers in a form of protest to these reforms sent a delegation to London to try to settle scores with the Secretary for Colonies, the Duke of Devonshire.

The fundamental set of principles that were issued in this meeting are what came to be known as the Devonshire White Paper.

Factors that led to the issuing of the Devonshire white paper.

1. The influence of “The Dual Mandate”. This was a book of the League of Nations that had regulations concerning colonial mandates. Britain was committed to the principle of trusteeship whereby she was interested on its African population than European settlement
2. The rise of race conflicts i.e. Africans versus European dominion and European versus Asian conflicts. The Indians were opposed to the privileged position of European settlers.
3. The banning of racial segregation .The decision by the colonial government to ban racial segregation apart from the white highlands only, disappointed the settlers who wanted the ban lifted hence they sent a delegation to London to see the colonial secretary.
4. The African general resentment. Their resentment was on land alienation, forced labour, taxation system, kipande system, low wages and no political representation.

Terms of the Devonshire White Paper.

1. White highlands were reserved for European settlement only
2. Indians would be allowed to elect five members to LEGCO not on a common roll, but on a communal roll.
3. Racial segregation was abolished in all residential areas.
4. Restriction on Indian immigration was lifted
5. A nominated missionary was to represent African interests in the LEGCO.
6. The European Settlers’ demand for self government in Kenya was rejected.
7. African interests were declared paramount before those of immigrant races if there was a conflict.
8. The settlers were to maintain their representation in the LEGCO.
9. The Colonial Secretary was given mandate to exercise strict control over the affairs of the colony.

Implications of the Devonshire white paper.

The issuance of the paper left the Settlers, Asians and Africans more dissatisfied than ever before as follows;
On the part of the settlers;

1. The Indian call for equality, to them, was unrealistic since they could not stomach the mixing of Oriental and Western cultures in Kenya.
2. Since European culture was superior, they felt that racial segregation was justified in all spheres.
3. To the settlers, instead of giving in the Indians’ grievances, they would rather give in to African demands since they had moral rights to protect African interests.
4. To them, the white highlands were primarily theirs and they had a legal claim over them. On the Asian part;
5. They wanted equality of all races instead of settler dominance in Kenya especially pertaining to settlement in the white highlands.
6. They opposed policies on residential segregation and restriction on their immigration. The government was inviting more settlers to check Indian immigration into Kenya by this time.
7. They wanted direct and adequate representation in the Legco based on a common roll free election (not communal roll).
8. They objected separate taxation for Europeans and Indians and segregated education. The Devonshire White paper was therefore viewed as the product of the struggle between the Asians and the Europeans. The paper made the Asians join their African comrades in the struggle for freedom, especially in the trade Union Movement.  
9. Settler dominance In Kenyan affairs continued upto 1963 despite recommendations done in the white paper.

Results of the Devonshire white paper.

1. The Devonshire white paper saved Kenya from becoming another Rhodesia or South Africa. The European demand for self-government was rejected.
2. In theory, settler’s dominance was weakened but in practice, the white paper upheld the dominance of the settlers more than that of the Africans e.g. segregation in residential areas in towns continued, they dominated the economy because they retained the white highlands.
3. The paper did not satisfy the Asians since they did not gain access to the white highlands.
4. Although many Asians came to Kenya, the Asians did not achieve equality with Europeans through a Common Roll. The Indian congress refused to cooperate with the government; they declined to hold elections for the Legislative Council seats offered to them. No Asian seats, five in all were occupied until 1933.
5. Africans were to be represented by a nominated missionary, John Arthur, instead of representation by an African. For the first time, Africans were represented in the Legco.
6. The Devonshire White Paper Benefited the Africans by declaring/recognizing Kenya as an African country where African interests should be paramount
7. It failed to resolve African land and labour grievances.
8. It sensitized the Africans on their plight leading to formation of political parties.

URBANIZATION

​Towns that were already in existence before the advent of colonialism include Mombasa, Lamu and Malindi. Many other towns in the interior grew during the colonial period.

Factors which led to the establishment of urban centres in Kenya during the colonial period.

1. Development of transport network. Construction of roads and the Uganda railway led to growth of some towns as transport terminus or along the transport lines e.g. Nairobi, Voi, Nakuru and Kisumu.
2. Growth of trade in the interior of Kenya. Most towns began as trading centres for Indian commercial entrepreneurs. E.g Machakos, Nakuru, Kisumu, Nairobi and Voi.
3. Development of administrative posts. The colonial government established administrative posts in various parts of the country. These posts later grew into urban centres. E.g Fort Hall, Embu, Kapsabet, Meru and Garissa.
4. Rural-urban migration. The movement to urban areas by African labourers from various parts of the country led to further growth of urban centres.
5. Development of agriculture. Settler farming led to growth of towns like Eldoret which began as agricultural collection centres.
6. Development of Agro-based industries like flour mills, meat-processing plants and sawmills which attracted labourers from all parts of the country to be transformed into urban centres.
7. Development of mining activities. This stimulated development of industries in the mining areas leading to urban growth. E.g. Kakamega, Athi River and Magadi.

Why Africans moved to urban areas in colonial Kenya.

1. The Urban centres had recreational facilities and social amenities which attracted the Africans, fed up with hardship conditions in the reserves.
2. The Africans expected Job opportunities with better wages in the towns where there were industries as compared to the rural areas.
3. Some Africans were escaping from forced labour and taxation.
4. The African entrepreneurs wanted to take advantage of the wider markets in the towns to escape poverty in the crowded reserves.

Ways through which the colonial government controlled Africans migration to urban centers.

1. Taking headcount of those who were supposed to live in urban centres
2. Enacting strict rules about migration into urban centre
3. Creation of African reserves
4. Ensuring that only those who had specific activities to undertake in the urban centres lived there
5. Introduction of kipande system.

Positive effects of urbanization during the colonial period.

1. It promoted interaction between people of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds, who exchanged ideas and experiences. The centres became seedbeds of political activities that eventually culminated into the struggle for independence.
2. Urbanization promoted national integration and instilled a sense of nationhood among Kenyans as it watered down the differences and prejudices between communities.
3. The welfare associations formed by Africans in urban areas, like the Bara Association in Mombasa for all hinterland people, united them for a common cause by lessening ethnic hostilities.
4. Through sporting and cultural activities that took place in towns, relationships between different ethnic groups and races were cemented.
5. Many Africans benefited from the numerous employment opportunities as shoe shiners and repairers, charcoal sellers, hawking in industries and in European homes.
6. Due to the Abundance of labour and raw materials, industries in urban areas expanded further.

Negative effects of urbanization during the colonial period in Kenya.

1. There were inadequate housing facilities to meet the demands of the people. This led to overcrowding especially in slums/shanties led to the outbreak of diseases. Lack of planning of housing led to poor drainage and sanitation facilities.
2. Africans in urban areas were subjected to racial discrimination. The social services provided to the Africans were inadequate and of poor quality. Even houses in towns were occupied according to the various racial groups, with Europeans enjoying the best facilities.
3. Increased population in urban centres led to serious water shortages.
4. Establishment of industries in urban centres led to pollution of the environment, which affected the health of the inhabitants.
5. There was rampant unemployment as urban centres could not cope with the large influx of labourers and increased competition for the available jobs.
6. Many unemployed people in urban areas got involved in social vices / crimes such as drug abuse, alcoholism and promiscuity, due to desperation and poverty.
7. Africans working in urban centres received low wages with employers taking advantage of the high supply of labour, which affected their standards of living.
8. The mass rural-urban migration brought about intensification of migration regulations to control the numbers of African migrants. The Kipande system became stricter.
9. Economic activities in the rural areas were disrupted by the absence of men who had moved to urban areas. Women took up men’s roles.

EDUCATION AND HEALTH

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Education.

Formal education in colonial Kenya was provided by four groups;

1. The Christian Missionaries.
2. The Colonial government through local councils.
3. The Africans themselves.
4. Community organizations(Asians)

Major milestones in the development of education in Kenya during the colonial period.

Initially, the provision of education was the preserve of the missionaries. For example, the Church Missionary Society (CMS) pioneered by setting up a school at Rabai in 1844 and another in Mombasa in 1873.

Features of Missionary education

1. It was elementary. The subjects taught included religion, writing, reading, reading, hygiene and arithmetic.
2. It was industrial and technical in approach, aiming at training Africans to be carpenters, masons, agricultural assistants and shoe repairers.
3. It was denominational and aimed at inculcating doctrines of a particular church in the learners.

Objectives of Missionary education.

1. To impart in the Africans Agricultural Skills in order to promote settler farming.
2. To give the Africans basic technical skills to improve their industrial knowledge.
3. To train some Africans as Catechists to enhance the spread of Christianity.
4. To offer Africans basic literacy and numeracy to read the bible and do simple arithmetic. Education development in Kenya in the period between 1904 and 1963 was facilitated by the following factors;
   1. The WWI ex-soldiers experiences which convinced them of the advantage of higher education.
   2. Increase in African nationalism that demanded for better education for Africans.
   3. The need to produce better and more skilled manpower for the future independent Kenya.
   4. Primary education had produced qualified children who needed higher education.

In 1911, the colonial government agreed to share the burden of providing education to Africans with the missionaries. In 1913, the first Government African School was started at Machakos. It became a centre for Technical and Teacher training.

In 1918, the education commission made the following far-reaching recommendations to the government in line with the Fraser Commission report of 1908 which had recommended a racially –segregated system of education;

1. Provision of technical education to Africans.
2. Maintenance of racially segregated Schools.
3. More cooperation between the colonial government and the missionaries.
4. Appeals for grants-in-aid for mission schools.

In 1924, a commission came to Kenya (the Phelps –Stokes Commission) to look into the education situation. It recommended that Africans should receive Practical Agricultural-Oriented Education suitable for rural areas. Other recommendations included;

1. That there should be a uniform system of education in all government and missionary schools.
2. That sufficient training for teachers and related personnel should be enhanced by establishing colleges.
3. That schools should be built in the rural areas. This was done through the education ordinance of 1924.

Due to its recommendations, the Native Industrial Training Centre was built at Kabete in 1924 and Jeanes School, Kabete (1925) for offering technical and industrial education. Other schools were started later at Kapsabet, Kajiado, Tambach, Kitui, Kwale, Kabianga and Kapenguria.

The 1924 Education Ordinance created an advisory committee on African education. The representation to the committee was missionaries, colonial officials and settlers. The same year, more schools were built with the assistance of the newly formed Local Native Councils. In 1931, another Education Ordinance helped in the establishment of Kakamega GAS In 1932, Kisii GAS in 1934, and Kabianga. Finance for African education was to come from the colonial government.

From 1925, the missionaries began providing advanced level education to Africans. Initially secondary education was the preserve of the Europeans.

In 1926, the Alliance of protestant missionaries set up Alliance High School. Catholics established Kabaa in 1927 and Mang’u School in Thika in 1930 for Africans. In 1938 and 1939,

Maseno and St. Mary’s Yala were started as secondary schools.

Achievements of missionaries in provision of education.

1. They designed a curriculum with emphasis on agriculture, tailoring, masonry and carpentry.
2. They established the first secondary schools for Africans such as Alliance (1926), Kabaa (1927), Maseno (1938 and Yala (1939).
3. They trained African teachers to man the ‘Bush Schools’ (schools found in remote areas consisting of mud huts with grass-thatched roofs) and teach in independent schools.
4. They offered the necessary financial and material support to make these schools operational.

Secondary schools for whites included Prince of Wales (Nairobi School), and Duke of York (Lenana School) for European boys, Kenya Girls High School (Kenya High) and Limuru Girls for European Girls.

Schools for Indians include the Asian Railway School (1904) and other schools developed by the government in Mombasa and Nairobi. Also community-based schools like Allidina Visram and the Arya Samaj Foundation. Hospital School became the first multi-racial school in 1953.

In 1934, a District Education Board was created to plan education in districts, establish primary schools and manage the schools.

In 1949, the Beecher Committee was instituted to look into African education From 1961, Asian and African pupils begun to join European schools.

Provision of elementary education by Africans was pioneered by John Owalo of the Nomiya Luo Mission in 1910.

University Education.

Africans in Kenya got opportunity for university education at Makerere which was established in 1922 initially as a technical college and became an affiliate of the university of London on 1949.

In 1954, the Royal Technical College, Nairobi began to offer higher education and became an affiliate of the university of London in 1959 to offer the first degree courses in 1961 when it became known as the royal college.

Community based education.

This was done mainly by Asian families of Ismaili and Arya Samaj for the Indian traders in urban areas. Allidina Visram, A wealthy man, also established centres of higher education.

African Role in educational provision.

Africans began their own schools for the following reasons;

1. They wanted to protect certain cultural practices like feral circumcision and polygamy.
2. They wanted to access higher education, since the government and missionaries were only offering them technical and industrial education, so that to be able to compete for the white-collar jobs with other races.
3. They would also use the schools as a forum to air their grievances and to create political awareness in their community.

The Nomiya Luo Mission built several schools in Nyanza between 1908 and 1910. Other schools were built in Gem-Luanda region between 1913 and 1918 and in central Kenya in 1923 in Kiambu.

In 1934, the Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karinga Education Association founded more schools

In 1938, Githunguri Teacher Training College had been established under Mbiyu Koinange.

Health.​

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Developments in provision of health services in colonial Kenya.

Initially, just like in the case of education, the Christian missionaries were concerned with provision of health services in colonial Kenya. The colonial government was majorly concerned with eradication of plague, malaria and sleeping disease which the Pioneer European settlers suffered from. Preventive medicine was later introduced to help stop various infections of killer diseases.

The Church of Scotland Mission and the Church Missionary Society soon opened medical facilities in Kikuyu (1902), Kaimosi (1903), Kaloleni (1904) and Maseno (1905).

Dr, Arthur, a missionary and pioneer doctor, put up the Thogoto Mission Hospital in 1907 and the facility exists prominently up to today as the Kikuyu Eye Unit Hospital and Kikuyu Rehabilitation Centre.

Objectives of the Health centres.

1. To eradicate diseases such as smallpox, malaria and sleeping sickness.
2. To train medical personnel to handle western medicine.
3. To improve health and hygiene for Africans and Asians in towns where they lived in overcrowded areas lacking in sanitary facilities.

Africans began being trained in the provision of emergency health services during the first war. (The East African Medical Corps was formed). Between 1919 –1922, missionaries began to train Africans as Medical Dressers and Dispensers.

After the opening of the Alliance medical college in 1920 and the establishment of a Medical training centre under the Nurses and Midwives Ordinance many
African school leavers trained as laboratory and pharmacy assistants.

A Public Health Ordinance was passed in 1921 giving the Medical Department powers to institute measures for the control of malaria and prevent communicable diseases. As a follow up to the 1921 Ordinance, new health units were established in the four different African reserves.

The Rural Dispensary System was established to supplement the missionary efforts in provision of healthcare. Health centres were built in rural areas as part of the colonial government efforts to improve health facilities.

After 1945, the Development and Research Authority (DARA) gave 47,000 sterling pounds for health care and improvement of health services.

In 1949, the Bureau of Medical Research was set up as an agency of the East African High Commission.

In 1950 King George IV hospital (today the Kenyatta National Hospital) was started as a hospital for Africans and in 1951, it started training female nurses.

By 1962, there were over 100 rural health centres in the country.

Role of Africans in Health Provision.

Africans were more preoccupied with superstitions and over-reliance on traditional medicine which negated their participation in provision healthcare.

The traditional medicinemen were dismissed by missionaries despite their wealthy knowledge on herbal Medicine. Today, many people rely on traditional herbalists to compliment healthcare provision.

The Peace Treaties.

​In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson, President of the USA, outlined, in his speech to the congress, the ‘fourteen points’ that were essential in maintenance of world peace.
Among these were three great principles that formed the basis of world peace namely;

• Self-determination of all peoples, i.e, the right of peoples all over the world to determine their own fate.
• The need to make public all diplomatic and international agreements.
• The need to establish a League of Nations which would provide an avenue for discussing all international problems, protect small states from aggression by large ones.

In January 1919, statesmen from the 27 Allied powers converged at Paris, France to determine the fate of the defeated central powers. The central powers were not party to the discussions but were required to sign on the final draft. The Key personalities at the conference were;

1. Lloyd George( PM of Britain)
2. George Clemenceau (PM of France)
3. Woodrow Wilson (President of USA)
4. Vittorio Orlando (PM of Italy)

Five treaties were signed with each of the central powers separately as follows;

1. The Treaty of Versailles with Germany (28th June 1919)
2. Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria (10th September 1919)
3. Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (27th November 1919)
4. Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (4th June 1920)
5. ​Treaty of Sevres in 1920 and Lausanne in 1923 with Turkey.

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The Treaty of Versailles.

​It should be noted that all the above treaties were generally referred to as the Treaty of Versailles.

Terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919.

1. The treaty declared Germany an aggressor who was supposed to pay reparations and whose military capability was to be reduced.
2. She lost all her colonial passions with the African colonies being taken from her and put under supervision of the League of Nations.
3. The treaty of St. Germaine provided for the creation of Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Malta as mandated territories.
4. Germany was totally disarmed and only allowed to retain a force of 100,000 soldiers and her navy was disbanded. Military conscription was banned in Germany. 
   Germany’s population and size was reduced as Austria, with a large German population was allowed to remain independent. Italy acquired Stria, the Italian-speaking region of Austria.
5. Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized. Germany troops were not allowed in the region.
6. By the treaty of Versailles, Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France.
7. The treaty established the League of Nation.

Failures of the treaty of Versailles.

1. The treaty handed Germany a heavy punishment as if she was the only one to blame for World War 1. This provoked deep resentment and bitterness among the German nationals.
2. The treaty ignored the interests of the colonial people. The former colonial possessions of Germany and turkey were handed over to France and Britain in total disregard to the African grievances during the Versailles conference.
3. The treaty failed to carter for the interests of the minority in Europe. The new republic of Austria was forbidden from merging with Germany though a national vote was for the merger.
4. Italy was given a raw deal in the settlement. She was only given Stria, an Italian-speaking region formerly belonging to Austria.
5. Though the treaty proposal for the formation of the League of Nations came from the USA president Wilson, the US constitution prohibited commitment to such an Organization, whose membership required a nation to help a future victim of aggression,.

RESULTS OF WORLD WAR I

1. Nationalist movements in Asia and Africa grew in strength and number after the war and a sense of patriotism arose.
2. USA gained an upper hand in the post war European affairs. She emerged as a leading world power.
3. German military capability was reduced on land and sea and heavy indemnity imposed on her. She lost all her colonies, which were made mandated territories of the League of Nations.
4. The end of the war marked the beginning of the decline of western imperialism. As early as 1920, there was a possibility of independence for colonial countries. The war encouraged imperial powers to give more freedom to their subjects.
5. The end of the war witnessed the creation of new states e.g. Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Finland.
6. Germany and Italy fell in the hands of dictators e.g. Mussolini and Hitler.
7. The war Created bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought in the war. This continued until the outbreak of the Second World War.
8. It led to the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia as radicals took over government there.
9. It led to a change of government in Britain.
10. There was greater use of motor vehicles and aircraft, which facilitated transport.
11. The art of surgery improved.
12. Between 1914 and 1918, European factories were destroyed and business brought down hence heavy losses.
13. There was massive destruction of property and infrastructure.
14. It led to the great depression 1920 to 1921, which affected economies worldwide.
15. It led to increased taxation by he colonial authorities to meet war and post-war demands.

Achievements of the League of Nations.

1. The League of Nations, through the Permanent Court of International Justice, maintained international peace and security. E.g. in the city of Danzig in spite of the hostility between the poles and the Germans.
2. The League of Nations achieved its objective of treating the minority with humane. The International Office for Refugees, for example, assisted refugees. Victims of the Nazi persecutions were also assisted.
3. The league assisted in the administration of the trust territories, through the Mandates Commission. E.g. in Togo, Tanganyika Cameroon and Rwanda-urundi. In addition, the territories acquired from turkey. E.g. Iraq and Palestine.
4. The league was able to solve several interstate disputes in a peaceful manner. E.g the frontier dispute between turkey and Iraq over the Mosul province (1924-1926), the dispute between Poland and Germany over northern Silesia.
5. The league successfully restored financial stability in Austria following the economic slump in the country after the World War 1.
6. It successfully enforced control over the manufacture and sale of arms. It also held disarmament meetings.
7. The league ensured signing of peace treaties to promote security in the world. For example, the Locarno treaties of 1925 that settled boundary disputes between Germany and France.

Failures of the League of Nations.

• The League of Nations failed its Prime objective of maintaining world peace in the following ways;
• It failed to solve the Sino-Japanese dispute after Japan invaded Manchuria in China in 1931. Japan after refusing to abide by the League’s demands that it withdraws from the Chinese territory, even pulled out of the league in 1933.
• The Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Benito Mussolini, rather than accept the League’s verdict that he withdraws Italian troops from Ethiopia, pulled out of the League.
• The League failed to stop German Violation of the terms of the Versailles Treaty. She embarked on a remilitarization programme and established a navy and an airbase.
• Nations continued to make many defensive pacts in total disregard of the Treaty of Versailles.
• Germany invaded other regions such as Poland and Austria between 1936 and 1939, while Russia invaded Finland in 1939 in violation of the League of Nations.

Factors that undermined the effectiveness of the League of Nations.

• Member countries were not willing to take disputes to the international court of justice.
• German was still determined to increase its military strength and continue with its aggression policy.
• Individual nations were more preoccupied with national interests and pride, at the expense of the organization’s interests.
• The Versailles peace settlement resolutions were too harsh to Germany thus leaving the Germans aggrieved and refuse to cooperate with the League of Nations.
• The League of Nations lacked the executive authority to implement its resolutions.
• USA congress refused to ratify the treaty of the League of Nations. This denied the organization diplomatic and economic strength.
• There was shortage of funds to implement the functions of the League of Nations.
• The Appeasement Policy of Britain and France forced them to stand aside and avoid taking a firm action against Japan when she invaded china, Germany when she invaded and occupied Rhineland, and Italy when she attacked Ethiopia.

​The 1930’s witnessed the rise of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy and General Francisco Franco of Spain who intentionally defied international opinion and disregarded the Versailles Treaty and League of Nations.

Their activities and those of Japan began to interfere with prevailing peace in the world. This happened at the time when USA had retreated into isolation leaving the task of maintaining world peace only to Britain and France.

The Second World War involved most countries in the world with millions of people conscripted for service in both the military and war related industries.

Causes of the Second World War.

1. Germany’s dissatisfaction based on territorial grievances.
   The Versailles treaty of 1919 imposed harsh and humiliating conditions on Germany, which aggrieved the Germans to the level of being ready to go to war again.
2. The rise of nationalism in Europe.
   In Germany, the chancellor, Adolf Hitler who had the desire to dominate the whole world, fuelled it. For example, he encouraged German speakers in Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia to demand independence from Czechoslovakia. Italy under Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, in 1939 to regain her lost glory and national pride after the Adowa defeat I 1896. Syria rose up against France.
3. Political developments in Europe.
   In Italy in 1922, the fascist government under Benito Mussolini came to power. In Germany, Hitler’s Nazi government assumed power in 1933. The Fascist government in Italy emphasized on the regaining of lost glory. The Nazi government began a fresh new policy of aggression.
4. The economic problems caused by the great depression of 1929 to 1931.
   The great slump led to widespread unemployment, declining wages, poverty etc. these led to social discontent and political unrest in many countries of the world.
5. The failure of Germany to pay reparations.
   This was followed by the French invasion of the Ruhr industrial region- a German territory. This led to increased tension.
6. Weakening of the League of Nations.
   Japan left the League of Nations after protest over Manchuria, which she had grabbed, from china. Italy left the League of Nations after Mussolini had grabbed Abyssinia and annexed it against the will of the allies and Ethiopians. Russia invaded Finland in 1939 and the league was unable to intervene. There were many secret treaties among members of the league.
7. The Spanish civil war (1936-1939).
   The republican revolution of 1931 ended the Spanish monarchy. The struggle between the royalists and socialists, however, continued. The European powers took sides in the civil war. France, Britain and Russia supported the royalists. Germany and Italy supported General Franco who was fighting from exile in Morocco.
8. Growth of military alliances.
   Hitler and Mussolini established a military pact in 1936 (The Berlin-Rome Axis). it became the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis with the joining of Japan. The alliance between Russia and Germany to divide Poland widened the gap between them and the allied forces. It created fear and suspicion.
9. The invasion of Poland by Germany.
   This happened in September 1939 was the immediate cause of the war. This upset Britain and France, who stated their intentions of assisting Poland. They declared war on Germany in October 1939.

COURSE OF WORLD WAR 2

The invasion of Poland by German forces on 1st of September 1939 and the subsequent declaration of war against Germany by Britain and France on 3rd of September 1939 marked the beginning of the Second World War.

Meanwhile on 17th September 1939, the USSR attacked Poland from the East, as per the secret clause in the Nazi-Soviet act of August 1939. Poland had been overrun by German and Russian forces by 27th September 1939. The country was divided between Russia and Germany.

The phoney war.

This was a period during world war two when no major military operations were undertaken on the western front although war had been declared on Germany by France and Britain. The period lasted eight months from 3rd of September 1939.

It was used by the Allied countries to fully mobilise their forces for an attack on Germany since they had not initially been prepared. Hitler on his part did not want to be involved in war in the west since his armies had not fully recovered from the consequences in the east.

During this period, two unsuccessful attempts were made to bring peace;

1. On 6th October 1939, Hitler and Stalin of Russia made an attempt to convince the Allies to accept the Nazi Occupation of Poland and make peace.
2. On 7th October, King Leopold of Belgium and Queen Wilhelmina of Netherlands appealed to the Axis powers and the Western Allies to make peace.

War in Western Europe.

On 9th April 1940, Hitler launched a sea-borne invasion against Norway after attacking Denmark via land. They were assisted by a Norwegian Nazi sympathiser Vidkund Quisling. The prime minister of Norway and his Ministers fled to London and Hitler established a puppet government in the country.

The defeat of British and French forces in Norway sparked off a parliamentary revolution in Britain forcing the PM Neville Chamberlain to resign to be replaced by Sir Winston Churchill.

Germany extended their attack on Luxembourg, Netherlands and Belgium. The Allies were unable to contain the German advance and even retreated to the French port of Dunkirk, marking a major defeat of the allies in Europe.

On 14th June 1940, the Germans captured Paris forcing the new Prime Minister Paul Reynaud to sue for peace with Hitler on 22nd June 1940. Under the peace agreement, The Germans took over Alsace –Lorraine, Northern France and the Atlantic coastline. the French government fled to Vichy, southern France.

Why the French were defeated so quickly.

1. The French forces were not psychologically prepared for the war and thus were found divided.
2. The French forces were not as well organized as the Germans thus exposing various military weaknesses. For example, the Germans were supported by combat planes which the French did not use.
3. Poor communication between the army and the airforce. The French generals failed to coordinate the war properly to the extend of ignoring the fact that the Airforce could have been used to drive German Bombers off.  

Having succeeded in their Paris onslaught, the Germans attacked Britain in July 1940. However, Winston Churchill, the British Premier, had mobilized forces to resist this attack successfully he even obtained reinforcement from USA.

The battle of Britain determined the future of World War II. It forced Hitler to delay his attacks.

​War in North Africa. ​

WWII in Africa was marked by the Italian successful attack on French and British Somaliland. Under Marshal Graziani, the Italian forces advanced to Egypt though unsuccessful. In June 1942, German forces moved to North Africa to reinforce the Italians.

However, British forces led by General Bernard Montgomery moved quickly and captured Malta which would have been used as a base for attack by the Germans.

General Montgomery attacked the Germans at El Alamein in Egypt, forcing them to move to west. On 8th November 1942, British and American forces invaded Morocco and Algeria.

Although the Germans continued fighting in Tunisia, by May 1943, their Army under General Rommel had surrendered.

War in the Balkans.

In August 1940, Hitler Attacked and captured Romania and Bulgaria. In April 1941, Yugoslavia and Greece were taken. Crete was taken in May 1941.

On 22nd June 1941, Hitler attacked USSR forcing the Russian troops to retreat. However, he failed to capture Moscow before the onset of winter. In June 1942, the Germans resumed their offensive.

They were finally defeated at the battle of Stalingrad on 31st January 1943 by the Russian Red Army led by Marshal Zhukov. The Germans lost 300,000 men while 100,000 survivors surrendered.

By May 1944, the Russians had pushed the Germans from their territory and were approaching Germany itself.

Why the Germans were defeated during the Russian Invasion.​

The German army was fighting in several fronts at the same time as compared to the allies. This lack of concentration in one area allowed the other Russian army to defeat them.

The soviet forces employed the scorched earth policy which left very little for the German forces.

The Germans ill-treated the soviet people and exploited their economic resources causing resentment and unity to fight with determination.

Weak leadership by the German military leaders contributed to their defeat.

USA entry into World War II

​The Japanese attack on the American great Naval Base at Pearl Harbour on the Hawaiian island is the one incident that dragged USA into WWII.

On 8th December 1941, the USA, Britain and the Netherlands declared war on Japan. The Germans and Italians also declared war on the USA. Russia kept off the war in Asia having signed a treaty with Japan.

Japan resisted fiercely. Her air force sank two British battleships on 10th December 1941.She captured Hong Kong, Malaya in Malaysia and took over the great naval base at Singapore. She also occupied Burma, Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and parts of the western pacific islands.

The Japanese forces were repulsed while on their way to Port Moresby, New Guinea in may 1942.

In 1942, Britain used her bases in India to attack Japan. Japan attacked India in 1944, but the strong and large allied forces defeated the Japanese at the battle of Kohima.

The defeat of Germany.

After 1942, the tide of success began to turn against Hitler. German forces were defeated by the allies in North Africa and France. By March 1945, the Allies had crossed the Rhine, pushed the Germans out of France in June 1944.

The Germans were meanwhile facing the Russian attack from the East. Hitler accepted defeated and handed over power to one of the Military Generals to retreat to an underground Bunker in Berlin.

On 29th April 1945, Hitler married his long term Mistress Eva Braun. On the following day, he committed suicide by shooting himself while Eva Braun took Poison.

On 7th May 1945, the Germans surrendered unconditionally.

Why the Germans were defeated.

1. Germany had acquired far too many territories and she was unable to effectively control them.
2. The USSR recovered from her losses and began to rearm in a bid to fight against Germany.
3. The USA entry into the war in 1941 on the side of the allies contributed to the eventual defeat of the Germans.
4. Germany’s Axis powers were only four, fighting against more than 27 allies. Even among the German collaborators, Italy surrendered while Bulgaria and Romania also were a burden to the Germans.

The defeat of Japan.

After Germany surrendered, Japan continued with fierce fighting sometimes employing the services of suicide bombers known as Kamikaze. The allies were able to liberate the territories captured by Japan.

After the defeat at Okinawa, Japan was certain of defeat, but her PM , Admiral Suzuki Kantaro, did not believe in unconditional defeat.

On 6th August 1945, a bomber Aeroplane, Enola Gay, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets, flew over Hiroshima dropping a 4535.15kg atomic bomb. About 78,000 people died.

On 8th August 1945, Russia attacked Japan. On 9th August 1945, an even larger Bomb was dropped on Nagasaki killing more than 40,000 people.

Japan surrendered unconditionally on 15th August 1945 bringing WWII to an end.

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Factors that enabled the allied powers to win the Second World War

1. Allies had more wealth in terms of food, raw materials and equipments.
2. Allies controlled the North Sea, which ensured safe transportation of troops and equipment. They were also able to block the central powers in the sea.
3. Entry of USA in the war led to defeat of Germany. America had strong American air force and war resources,
4. Germany’s inability to control her expansive territories and some turned against her and in favour of the allied powers.
5. The unity, morale and determination of the allied leaders and fighters.
6. Popular sentiment was for allied victory and Hitler’s defeat.
7. Hitler's overconfidence and craziness did not allow him to comprehend the enormity of opposition up against him and the axis forces.
8. External support especially from the colonial people in Africa, Asia and elsewhere.
9. Axis powers dropped out of war one by one.
10. Allies had better industries and financial resources/ superior economy, war tactics and superior diplomacy by all the allied powers.
11. The axis powers made serious tactical mistakes e.g. Hitler failed to prepare for a winter campaign in Russia and was obsessed with the idea that Germans must not retreat.
12. When the USSR recovered from her losses, she re-armed herself and attacked Germany.

Social results of Second World War

1. Depopulation and great suffering as Millions of people perished either in war or due to famine and diseases.
2. People suffered psychologically and emotionally from the loss of loved ones and torture of the war.
3. The end of the war witnessed change in the status of women. Women started doing work, which was initially monopolized by men. E.g. military and management.
4. There was permanent ill health and shortening of life for millions of peoples because of years of under- nourishment or captivity.
5. There was massive Destruction of property such as homes, houses, buildings, roads and bridges.
6. A large number of people were displaced as people moved to look for peaceful areas and this led to great suffering. The new refugees included the Jews, Slavs and the poles.
7. The war fomented bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought.
8. The war helped to shade off the myth popularized by Europeans that they were a superior race to Africans as European causalities in the war proved that they were Mortals.

​Political effects of the World War II.

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1. Defeat of axis powers led to government changes in Germany, Italy and Japan.
2. The division of Europe into two opposing blocs led to the cold war, which was followed by an arms race between USA and USSR.
3. Germany was divided into two. The communist East and the capitalist West. The city of Berlin was also divided between the east and the west.
4. Germany and Italy were weakened especially with the loss of their colonies.
5. U.S.A & U.S.S.R emerged as superpowers. The pre-war balance of power was destroyed and the power vacuum was filled by two new superpowers, the USA and USSR
6. A weakness of the League of Nations to prevent the outbreak of war was demonstrated. This Led to UNO formation.
7. There was rise of nationalism in Asia and Africa. It led to Africans struggle for independence because they were confident knowing that Europeans were no superior to them. Nationalists among the Asians leading to attainment of independence in Pakistan and India in 1947, in Burma (Myanmar) in 1948, and in Ceylon (Sri Lanka.) in 1949.
8. The Japanese destroyed the myth of European military superiority due to the defeat of British and American forces in the Far East.
9. New states were created. In 1948, the state of Israel was established in the Middle East, to settle the Jews who were displaced during the war.

Economic effects of World War 2.

1. Agriculture and industries were disrupted due to lack of equipment, raw materials and human resources.
2. External trade almost came to a standstill because of fear and insecurity.
3. It led to increased dependency on colonies by European powers. There was need of raw materials to reconstruct the destroyed industries.
4. Some Industries were established in the colonies to manufacture goods because of the difficulties faced in running them during the war.
5. It led to the rise of European economic cooperation. The post war economic destructions led to the need for cooperation. This paved way for formation of the European Economic Community in 1957.

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Definition.

This was a system of administration in which French colonies were given a culture and civilization similar to that of France. This system was influenced by the French revolution of 1789, which emphasized the equality of all men.  In Africa, it was perfected by Lewis Faidherbe in Senegal when he was governor from 1854 to 1865.  To many historians Assimilation was a deliberate French policy to help them destroy African Chieftaincies and Kingdoms that were thriving at the time of their arrival. Under the system, Africans had to;

1. Learn the French language.
2. Practice the French legal system.
3. Apply the French civil and political system.
4. Convert to Christianity and learn French mannerism including eating and dressing habits. Later on assimilation evolved into association which had been first applied in Africa in central Africa by Savorgnan de Brazza.

Association involved letting the subjects develop independently due to the belief that non-westerners were racially inferior and would therefore never be accepted as equal to Europeans even when assimilated.

French administration in West Africa.

• The French system of administration was highly centralized.
• The eight French colonies were grouped into the confederation of French West Africa. They were governed from one capital, Dakar, Senegal.
• The federation was headed by a Governor-General answerable to the French Minister for colonies in Paris. Each colony was headed by a lieutenant- Governor answerable to the Governor-General in Dakar.
• Each colony was divided into cercles (provinces), each headed by a commandant de cercle. Each cercle was further divided into small districts each headed by a chef de sub-division below whom were African chiefs (chefs de cantons in charge of locations). At the base were chefs de village in charge of the sub-locations.
• All the French overseas colonies were seen as overseas provinces and each elected a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies in Paris (lower House). However the French administrators appointed lacked high standards of education and some were military officers simply rewarded with senior administrative positions. This led to inefficiency.

French administration in Senegal.

In Senegal, the policy of assimilation was only applied in the four communes of St.Louis, Goree, Rufisque and Dakar. In the rest of the country, African chiefs who ruled were put I three grades namely;
Chefs de province: - equivalent of the paramount chiefs, they were usually successors of the pre-colonial chiefs.
Chefs de Canton: - these were ordinary people appointed by the French officials due to their ability, to be charge of locations. They kept register of taxpayers the location, helped the government in conscription of Africans into the army and assisted in mobilizing forced labour for road construction and other public works.
Chefs de village:- these were usually traditional heads of the community(village) who were given the responsibility of collecting taxes, maintenance of law and order, organizing relief during floods and locust invasion and maintaining roads in their areas.
The privileges which were enjoyed by assimilated Africans in the four communes of Senegal included;

Economic privileges

• They were exempted from forced labour.
• They were allowed to work in France.
• They were exempted from paying taxes.
• They were allowed trading rights like the French people.

Political privileges

• They were allowed to send representatives to the French Chamber of Deputies.
• They were enfranchised like the French people in France (right to vote)
• They enjoyed the rights of the French Judicial System like the French.
• They were allowed to operate Local Authority’ structures which were similar to those in France.
• They were allowed to retain Muslim law.
• They were exempted from arbitrary arrest/through the Indigenization policy.

 Characteristics of assimilation.

1. Administrative assimilation. There was an administrative relationship between the French colonies and their mother country. Colonies were regarded as overseas provinces.
2. Political assimilation. The colonies were represented in the French chamber of deputies thus maintaining a close political identity.
3. Economic assimilation. The French currency was used in the colonies to enhance the economic relationship.
4. Personal assimilation. Africans in the Quatre communes were given French citizenship and other privileges enjoyed by French citizens.

Reasons why assimilation was successful in the four communes.

1. There was a high percentage of Mullato population within the communes, who readily accepted the French culture making it easy for the French to apply assimilation.
2. Africans were familiar with Europeans and their culture due to long interaction with them through trade.
3. Many people had converted to Christianity and this made it possible for the French to apply their policy.

Factors that undermined the application of the French policy of assimilation in West Africa.

1. There was opposition by local people who did not want the French to interfere with their culture.
2. The Traditional African rulers resisted the policy since they did not want to lose their authority and influence over the assimilated people.
3. The French traders in West Africa also opposed the system they viewed assimilated Africans as a potential threat to their commercial monopoly in the region.
4. The policy of assimilation ran the risk of undermining the very foundation of French colonialism, as it was not possible to exploit Africans who had attained the assimile status.
5. Missionary school system of education undermined the French policy of assimilation since there was segregation in provision of mission education.
6. Nationalism conflicted with the policy of assimilation.
7. Assimilation was becoming too expensive to the French government especially because West African colonies were not self-supporting yet.
8. The vastness of the French colonies made it difficult to supervise the implementation of the policy.
9. Muslims resisted fiercely the French attempt to convert them to Christianity.
10. Racial discrimination against the indigenous people also contributed to the failure of the system. This is because many Frenchmen never accepted assimilated Africans as their equals.
11. The French citizens in the motherland opposed the policy as they feared being outnumbered in the chamber of deputies.

Ways in which Nationalism undermined the policy of Assimilation in French West Africa.

1. It emphasized loyalty or devotion to one’s country and national independence or separatism, which were against the policy of assimilation.
2. Nationalists agitated for boycott of anything of French origin.
3. The nationalists created awareness on the value of African culture and systems; this encouraged Africans to condemn assimilation.
4. The nationalists created awareness on the importance of African unity which exposed the hypocrisy of assimilation

Consequences of assimilation in Senegal.

1. The policy of assimilation undermined African cultures, as many Africans embraced the French culture. For instance, the French language became the official language in the colony.
2. The authority of traditional African leaders was eroded and even many were replaced by the assimilated Africans.
3. The colony was incorporated into the French republic and regarded as an overseas province of France.
4. Africans from Senegal were allowed to participate in the political matters of France. Some Senegalese like Blaise Diagne were elected as deputies in the French parliament.
5. The spread of Islam was greatly frustrated, especially in the four communes where Africans were converted to Christianity.
6. A great rift emerged between the assimilated Africans , who were regarded as French citizens and the rest of African communities , who were subjected to taxation and forced labour

The policy of association.

Under this system, the French colonial government was to respect the cultures of her colonial peoples and allow them to develop independently rather than force them to adopt French civilization and culture.  Unlike the assimilated Africans, subjects retained their cultural practices e.g polygamy and Islam. The subject came under a system of law known as indigenat where the subject could suffer arbitrary arrest or be forced to serve a longer period in the army than assimilated citizens.

Why the French government replaced the policy of assimilation with that of association in 1945.

1. The French had realized that assimilation would lead to equality between them and the colonized people.
2. Assimilation was too expensive especially because West African colonies were not self-supporting yet.
3. The method clashed with the commercial interests. The French businesspersons and their friends in the colonial administration saw Africans as source of cheap labour. They therefore disapproved the idea of uplifting them.
4. The French had realized that not all the colonial people could be assimilated. Only the elite ones among them could. Association aimed at transforming the Native elites into Frenchmen while allowing the other masses to learn enough French for communication purposes.
5. They had realized that there was need to allow the colonies to enjoy the freedom of  developing according to existing traditional political and social structure. / respect for the culture of her colonies.

The similarities between the French and the British colonial administrations

1. To help stop slave trade since slaves would no longer be needed to ferry goods to and from the coast.
2. To provide quick, safe and convenient means of transport for government administrators/troops
3. Open up Kenya for economic development/to stop slave trade/promote legitimate trade
4. To maintain law and order so that economic development could be achieved.
5. To make Africans more productive and able to generate revenue in form of tax to the colonial government.
6. ​To activate interior trade. To enable transportation of imported goods to the interior of the colony.

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ATIKA SCHOOL HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT NOTES

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FORM 4 ATIKA SCHOOL HISTORY NOTES

World War I

World War I or the First World War was a war fought by many countries, which is why it is called a "world" war. It started in 1914 and ended in 1918. 135 countries took part in World War I, and more than 15,000,000 people died in the war.

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World War One - Causes

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The First Moroccan Crisis

The First Moroccan Crisis clearly indicated that Germany’s relation with France was at best fragile. In 1905 Morocco was one of the few African states not occupied by a European power. In May 1905 it was agreed that an international conference should be held on Morocco in Algeciras.

The Algeciras Conference of 1906

The main aim was to decide what was to be done with regards to Morocco. The two main protagonists at Algeciras were France and Germany. However, it soon became very clear to Germany that other European powers had sided with France – Britain, Spain and Italy. The Algeciras Conference ended on April 7th 1906.The Germans got very little out of the conference. The plan to create a triple alliance or even a quadruple alliance to isolate Great Britain failed. Arguably, by the end of the conference, Britain and France had even closer ties to one another. A German presence in North Africa had also failed to materialize. The French media portrayed Germany as an inferior nation, much to the concern of the more experienced politicians in Paris. The Algeciras Conference may have ‘resolved’ the crisis in Morocco but the outcome clearly defined Europe into certain camps. At this conference Germany publicly lost out.

The Agadir Crisis of 1911 (the Second Moroccan Crisis.)

The Agadir Crisis occurred in 1911 just four years after the First Moroccan Crisis. Germany’s attention was diverted after the 1905-06 crises by other issues, mainly building up her navy so that it rivaled the Royal Navy. As a result France spent five years having far more influence in Morocco than Germany. They backed the corrupt Sultan, Abdul Aziz, who was accused by some of his countrymen of selling out Morocco to the French. The half-brother of Aziz, Mulay Hafid, took a stand on behalf of the Moroccan people who proclaimed him Sultan in January 1908. Fez also came under attack. In April 1911 a decision was made in Germany to send troops to Fez to support the foreign contingent living there. The plan was to send German warships to Agadir and Mogador ostensibly to defend German citizens in Morocco. A gunboat, the ‘Panther’, was sent to Agadir on July 1st 1911.
What part did the Agadir Crisis play in the outbreak of World War One?
The episode proved that Germany was hell-bent on trying to dominate Europe as a whole. Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George were among those who believed this.

7)  Bosnian Crisis

In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war. Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria-Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high.

8)  The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

A secret society called Ujedinjenje Ili Smrt, ('Union or Death') or Black Hand was founded in Belgrade, an outgrowth of an older Serb nationalist group: Narodna Odbrana. When it was learned that the Heir-Apparent to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was scheduled to visit Sarajevo in June of 1914, the Black Hand decided to assassinate him. Three young Bosnians were recruited, trained and equipped: Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez. The murders of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie brought Austro-Serbian tensions to a head. As Vienna took a hard line against Serbia, the other powers in Europe took sides. The wheels of war gained speed. The Crisis of July turned into world war, just over thirty days after Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were shot.

System of Alliances.

By 1914, Europe had divided into two camps.

1. The Triple Alliance was Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary.
2. The Triple Entente was Britain, France and Russia.

1) The Triple Alliance

The alliance between Germany and Austria was natural. Both spoke the same language - German - and had a similar culture. Austria was in political trouble in the south-east of Europe - the Balkans. She needed the might of Germany to back her up if trouble got worse. Italy had joined these countries as she feared their power on her northern border.
Each member of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy) promised to help the others if they were attacked by another country. By the close of the war the Central Powers had been extended to incorporate Bulgaria and Turkey

2)  The Triple Entente

The Entente Powers comprised a military alliance - driven by a variety of inter-related treaties - of France, Great Britain and Russia.
The Entente alliance sprang from the military concerns of Germany's neighbours to east and west. Russia and France; accordingly in 1894 they signed an alliance based upon fears of growing German power. Britain subsequently forged alliances with both Russia and France once it became clear that Germany intended to construct a navy to match the Royal Navy in the late 1890s. Thus the Entente Alliance was not a formal alliance. The term was later replaced by the more general 'Allies' to include other nations including Italy and Japan.

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12. Right to fair labour practices.

Responsibility.

13. Right to clean and healthy environment.

Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. The following are the obligations set by the government in order to achieve a clean and healthy environment.

Responsibility.

14. Freedom of conscience, religion, belief and opinion.

Responsibility.

15. Freedom of expression.

Responsibility.

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23. Access to justice.

Responsibility.

24. Right of arrested persons.

An arrested person has;

25. Fair hearing.

Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights;

Responsibility.

26. Rights of persons detained, held in custody or imprisoned.

Responsibility.

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